PRACilCAL 

STEAMAN-.IKllVVATLi 
AND Vi-iilLVriON 



ALFRED G.KING 



PRACTICAL 

STEAM AND HOT WATER 
HEATING 

AND VENTILATION 

By ALFRED G. KING 



PRACTICAL 

STEAM AND HOT 
WATER HEATING 

AND VENTILATION 



A MODERN PRACTICAL WORK ON STEAM AND 
HOT WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION, WITH 
DESCRIPTIONS AND DATA OF ALL MATERIALS 
AND APPLIANCES USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION 
OF SUCH APPARATUS; RULES, TABLES, ETC. 

BY 

ALFRED G. KING 

(A. G. KING) 

AUTHOR OF "steam AND HOT WATER HEATING CHARTS," 
"practical heating ILLUSTRATED," ETC. 




CONTAINING OVER THREE HUNDRED SPECIALLY MADE ILLUSTRATIONS 

SHOWING IN DETAIL ALL OF THE VARIOUS HEATING SYSTEMS, 

WITH PIPE, RADIATOR AND BOILER CONNECTIONS 



NEW YORK 
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 

132 NASSAU STEEET 
1908 



^ 



\>r- 



LiBRARY of CONaRESS.' 
Two Copies ffeceivtid 

FEB 27 1908 

0LA8»/4 XXc. iVu 
OOPY B. 



Copyrighted, 1908, by 
THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 



fN. 



coarposiTioN, electrotyping, and press- 
work BY TROW directory, PRINTING AND 
BOOKBINDING COMPANY, NEW YORK, U. S. A. 






LC Control Number 




tmp96 026433 



PREFACE 

From a more or less experimental stage to one of an exact 
science has been the progress of the art of artificial heating and 
ventilation during the period covering the past twenty-five or 
thirty years. In the early days of this industry there were but 
few competent fitters located outside of the larger cities. However, 
of later years the above conditions have changed, due in a great 
measure to the constant advancement and education of the steam 
fitting trade. To-day it is not an uncommon thing to find in a 
small city or town one or more steam fitters entirely competent 
to install almost any kind of a steam or hot-water heating appa- 
ratus. 

This education of the steam fitter has been accomplished largely 
by the frequent publication in the trade papers of much practical 
information, accompanied by drawings and data which could be 
readily understood by him. 

The publication of a number of books on the subject of Steam 
and Hot-Water Heating and Ventilation has also been of great 
assistance to the steam fitter in his mental advancement. How- 
ever, much of the matter contained in these books is too technical 
and of a nature too difficult to be clearly understood by a man 
of average education. 

In presenting this work the author wishes to give a brief history 
of the science of steam and hot-water heating and ventilation and 
the early methods of constructing work, and to describe and illus- 
trate the advancement and improvements over the earlier methods. 
By the illustrations, rules and explanations given, we shall aim to 
make plain to the steam fitter or apprentice the best methods of 

7 



8 PREFACE 

estimating and installing heating work by any one of the modem 
methods or systems now in use. 

To keep pace with the means and methods employed we must 
be continually studying and actively interesting ourselves in the 
improvements as they are brought out. The methods of a score 
of years ago have given place to other and improved methods 
and further experimenting and study by the wide-awake American 
mechanics are bound to result in still further progress. 

To those authors and authorities from whose works we have 
quoted and to the manufacturers of heating appliances who have 
so kindly assisted us, we extend our thanks. 

Our effort is not to criticise but rather to comment upon the 
various heating and ventilating systems in vogue at the present 
time and to instruct the steam fitter in a practical way regarding 
their application and installation. 

We have also added such tables, rules and general informa- 
tion as will make this valuable as a reference book for the con- 
tracting steam fitter. 

A. G. King. 

February, 1908. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

Introduction — Modern methods of steam and hot-water heating and ventilation 
— Evolution of steam and hot-water heating and ventilation — The practice 
of heating and ventilation — Steam and hot-water heating and ventilation — 
A practical treatise — Steam and hot-water heating and ventilation and 
practice 15 



CHAPTER II 

Heat — Nature of heat — How measured — How transmitted — The heat unit 

(B„ T. U.) — Radiating power of bodies — Absorption of heat .... 18 



CHAPTER III 

Evolution of artificial heating apparatus — Open fire-places — Stoves — Furnaces — 
Average life and cost — Healthfulness — Early type of boilers — Steam boilers, 
Hot-water heaters 



CHAPTER IV 

Boiler surfaces and settings — Grate surface — Water surface — Boiler setting — The 
safety valve — ^The steam gauge — The automatic damper regulator — ^The 
water column and gauge glass — The blow-off cock — The firing tools and 
brushes — The fusible plug 40 



CHAPTER V 

The chimney flue — Sizes of chimneys — Elements of a good flue — Proper construc- 
tion of chimney flues — Heights of chimneys — Table of heights and areas . 5Q 

9 



10 CONTENTS 



CHAPTER VI 

PAGE 

Pipe and fittings — Pipe — ^Table of sizes — Threading of pipe — Bending of pipp — 
Expansion of pipe — ^Table of pipe expansion — ^Wrought-iron or steel pipe — 
Nipples — Couplings — ^Fittings — Branch tees — ^Flanges — Table of flanges 
— ^Measuring pipe and fittings 63 



CHAPTER VII 

Valves, various kinds — ^Air valves, various kinds ,.."*.... 73 

CHAPTER VIII 

Eorms of radiating surfaces — ^Radiators — ^Pipe coils — Coil building ... 81 

CHAPTER IX 

Locating of radiating surfaces — ^Direct radiators — ^Indirect radiators — Table of 

air ducts — ^Direct-indirect radiators 91 

CHAPTER X 

Estimating radiation — Rules for estimating — For steam — ^For hot water— Some 

dependable rules 97 

CHAPTER XI 

Steam-heating apparatus — ^The circuit system — ^The divided-circuit system — ^The 
one-pipe system — Dry returns — ^The overhead system — ^The two-pipe system 
— Advantages of steam heating — Tables — Sizes of mains . . . .103 

CHAPTER XII 

Exhaust-steam heating — ^Value of exhaust steam — Necessary fixtures — Heating 

capacity of exhaust steam 115 

CHAPTER XIII 

Hot-water heating — Two-pipe system — Sizes of mains for two-pipe system — The 
expansion tank — Water connection — Table of expansion-tank sizes — The 
overhead system — Expansion-tank connections for overhead system — ^The 
circuit system — Sizes of mains for circuit system — Why water circulates . 120 



CONTENTS 11 

CHAPTER XIV 

PAGE 

Pressure systems of hot-water work — Table of temperatures — Expansion-tank 

connections for pressure work — Evans and Almirall systems . . . . 141 



CHAPTER XV 

Hot-water appliances — The altitude gauge — ^The hot-water thermometer — Floor 
and ceiling plates — Pressure appliances — ^The Honeywell system — The 
Phelps heat retainer 146 



CHAPTER XVI 

Greenhouse heating — Early method — Modern greenhouse heating — Estimating 
radiation for greenhouses — Table of temperatures — ^Methods of greenhouse 
piping 155 



CHAPTER XVII 

Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating — Explanation of a vacuum — Im- 
proved methods of exhaust heating — The Webster system — The Paul system 
— The Van Auken system — Mercury seal systems — The K.M.C. system — 
The Trane system — The Ryan system — ^Vapor heating — ^The Broomell 
^ system — ^Vacuum vapor heating — ^The Gorton system — The vacuum- vapor 
system — ^Dunham vacuo-vapor system — The future of vacuum heating . 163 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Miscellaneous heating — ^The heating of swimming pools — Heating water for 

domestic purposes — Steam for cooking and manufacturing .... 189 



CHAPTER XIX 

Radiator and pipe connections — Steam radiator connections, hot-water radiator 
connections — Improper use of tees — Methods of pipe construction — ^Artificial 
water-lines — Cross-connecting boilers — Pipe measurements for 45° and other 
angles 199 



CHAPTER XX 

Ventilation — Importance of ventilation — Air necessary for ventilation — ^Amount 

of air required — Methods of ventilation 211 



12 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXI 

PAGE 

Mechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating — Growth and improvement — 
Methods employed — Exhaust and plenum — Heat losses and heating capacity 
required — Quality of the air supplied — An ideal system — Fans for blowing 
and exhausting. — Types of heaters — Methods of driving fans — Some details 
of construction — Factory heating — Relative cost of installation and opera- 
tion — Apparatus for testing 224 



CHAPTER XXII 

Steam appliances — Steam traps — Return traps — Separators — Oil separators — 
Steam separators — ^Feed-water heaters — Steam pumps — Boiler feed pumps — 
Vacuum pumps — Pump governors and regulators — Back-pressure valves — 
Pressure-reducing valves — ^Injectors — Inspirators — Automatic water feeders . 



CHAPTER XXIII 

District heating — Early methods — ^Modern methods — Central station hot-water 
heating — Scale of hot-water temperatures 



CHAPTER XXIV 

Pipe and boiler covering — Importance of covering pipes — Saving effected by 
covering — Materials used — ^Underground covering 



CHAPTER XXV 

Temperature regulation and heat control — Automatic steam damper regulator, 
automatic temperature regulators — The Powers thermostat, the Powers 
system — The National regulator — The D. & R. regulator — The Howard 
regulator — The Minneapolis regulator — ^The Lawler thermostatic regulator — 
The Johnson pneumatic system 299> 



CHAPTER XXVI 

Business methods — Estimating — Proposal and bid — Specifications for steam heat- 
ing — Specifications for hot-water heating — Special features of contracts . 316 



CONTENTS 13 

CHAPTER XXVII 

PAGE 

Miscellaneous — Care of heating apparatus — Summer care — Proper attention to 
boilers — Removal of oil and dirt — Summer tests to determine efficiency — 
Care of tools — Labor-saving suggestions — Bronzing, painting, and decoration 
— Guaranty — Boiler explosions — Prevention of boiler explosions — Utilizing 
waste heat 329 



CHAPTER XXVIH 
Rules, Tables, and Useful Information . . 347 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



CHAPTER I 
Introduction 

It Is well in beginning the study and consideration of the 
science of heating and ventilation to look back to the start of 
what has grown to be one of our most important industries. 

We may properly term it Domestic Engineering, as on the 
work of the heating and ventilating engineer depends largely the 
health, and consequently the happiness, of the great body of civ- 
ilized people of the world. 

There is no doubt that the use of hot water for heating pur- 
poses antedates the use of steam. We have a more or less obscure 
record of the use of hot water in this respect by the Romans. In 
the beginning of the eighteenth century we have records of green- 
houses (at that time called " hothouses ") being successfully 
heated by hot water and later in the same century, about the 
year 1775, we find a Frenchman, Bonnemain, using hot water 
to heat a brooder on a chicken farm. This may be said to be the 
beginning of the practical application of hot water for heating 
purposes. 

Steam was probably first used for heating purposes in the early 
part of the nineteenth century, when efforts were made to heat a 
factory by steam at a high pressure. The development of steam 
heating from that date to the present time has been both rapid 
and constant, although the last decade has seen this industry ad- 
vanced to a state of perfection never dreamed of by the early 
heating engineers. From a loose and haphazard method of figur- 
ing and installing work of this character, it has reached a scientific 
stage, and as such is more or less understood by a large majority 

of those engaged in the business. 

15 



16 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Heating and Ventilation are kindred trades and sciences, each, 
in a measure, dependent on the other. The early effort to ventilate 
the British House of Commons, in 1723, was probably the real be- 
ginning of artificial ventilation. 

Dr. J. F. Desaguliers, a French boy, whose father removed 
to England when Desaguliers was but an infant, was, without 
doubt, the most distinguished student of physics and mechanics of 
that time. To him was intrusted the problem of ventilating the 
House of Commons. Previous to this date, however, other plans 
had been tried to provide a means of ventilation, but we believe 
the first scientific study and experiments were conducted by Dr. 
Desaguliers. 

Efforts were put forth during the early part of the nineteenth 
century to improve on this ventilating apparatus by the pro- 
viding of large fans or blowers, which were propelled by hand. 
The ventilation of other public buildings was then undertaken 
and the science had advanced to such a stage that in the year 1824 
an English engineer, Tredgold by name, published a book entitled 
" Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public Buildings " — 
a standard work still referred to at this date. 

While the history of the sciences of heating and ventilation 
and the endeavors of many engineers of eminence may be both 
interesting as well as instructive, we refer only to the beginning 
in order that our readers may realize, to the fullest extent, the 
evolution of the methods of heating by steam and hot water and 
ventilating by natural or mechanical means. 

To such men as Tredgold, Dr. Reid, Charles Hood, E. Peclet, 
Robert Briggs and others of earlier date, and Mills, Billings, 
Baldwin, Carpenter and other engineers of these latter times, are 
we indebted for the advancement and perfecting of the various 
methods of estimating and constructing the warming and ventilat- 
ing systems of to-day. 

The remainder of the credit is justly due to those who manu- 
facture and install the work and who have, by the use of modern 
machinery and up-to-date ideas, reduced the cost of steam and 
hot-water warming and ventilating apparatus to such an extent 
as to place it within the reach of those in moderate circumstances. 

Our public schools are better warmed and ventilated than ever 



INTRODUCTION 17 

before, as are also the majority of our other public and semi-public 
buildings. Our architects now study and consider the subject of 
heating and ventilation and we firmly believe that the coming 
decade will witness far greater advancement in these sciences than 
we have known before. 

An estimate made in the year 1906 shows that but a little over 
one tenth of our homes and public buildings are provided with 
steam or hot-water heating apparatus. Such an estimate further 
reveals the fact that less than two per cent of our homes are pro- 
vided with even a partial ventilating apparatus. 

As a nation we seem to have been satisfied to roast one side 
of our body while the other side was chilled, or, when fresh air 
was absolutely needed in the room, to open the door or window, re- 
gardless of the outside temperature or the condition of the weather. 
These sudden changes, of course, produced colds and bodily ills 
of like nature, which, no doubt, in many cases, proved fatal. We 
knew of no uniformity in either the temperature of the house 
or the purity of the atmosphere in the several rooms. 

Becoming aware of our mistakes of the past, we now demand 
a uniform temperature within our homes ; we are swiftly coming 
to the conclusion that we might better pay the coal dealer for the 
energy to produce heat, ventilation and comfort than to pay our 
physician for doctoring the ills resulting from our carelessness. 

It will be readily noted what a tremendous field there is for 
study and work along these lines, and to the journeyman steam 
fitter or contractor who fits himself thoroughly for this work, we 
see an abundant reward in store. 



CHAPTER II 
Heat 

Heat is motion, or a form of energy. Scientists tell us that 
it is their belief that all matter is made up of small vibrating par- 
ticles called molecules. The faster these particles move or vibrate, 
the more heat is produced, and the more the matter or body is 
expanded. This expansion may be carried to such an extent as to 
transform the body into another state. For example, note the 
formation of gas from coal or oil, or the formation of steam from 
water. 

With a hammer we may pound upon a piece of iron until it 
becomes hot. The Indians started a fire by briskly rubbing to- 
gether two pieces of wood, the energy of motion producing the 
necessary heat to ignite the dry moss, or other material used for 
kindling. 

The nature of heat is peculiar and it is well that we become 
somewhat acquainted with these peculiarities. 

Heat cannot be measured as to quantity, but the intensity of 
heat may be measured by a thermometer, and this measure we call 
temperature, and for registering this temperature we use the Fah- 
renheit scale. For example, water freezes at 32° F. and boils at 
212° F. (Fahrenheit was a German, who in 1721 made the first 
mercurial thermometer.) 

Heat may be transferred from one body to another by three 
distinct methods, namely, Conduction, Convection and Radiation. 
Lay a piece of hot iron upon another piece of iron, or a different 
object, and a certain proportion of the heat from the heated iron 
is transferred to the under object. This method is by Conduction. 

Water which has been heated and transferred to a storage tank 
through pipes makes the tank hot. This is heating by Convection. 

We may place a chair too near a heated stove and burn or 
blister the paint or finish upon same. The chair has not been 

18 



HEAT 19 

against the stove, neither has there been any direct connection 
between it and the heat producer, yet it has received the heat from 
the stove to such an intensity as to damage it. This damage was 
caused by radiation of heat, the heat being carried to the chair 
upon waves of air usually imperceptible to the eye. 

It is this latter method of heat transfer which is employed in 
the warming of buildings. The energy is developed at a boiler, 
or heater, placed usually in the basement of the building, the heat 
being transferred to the radiators, or radiating surfaces placed 
within or adjacent to the room to be heated and the heat again 
transferred to the room by radiation. 

While we cannot properly measure heat itself, we may measure 
it by the effect it produces, and this is accomplished by the so-called 
Heat Unit. The Heat Unit as adopted for engineering and scien- 
tific purposes is of three measures: viz., British, French and Ger- 
man. In this country it is the former that has come into general use. 

A British Thermal Heat Unit (B. T. U.) is the amount of heat 
required to raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree 
Fahrenheit, or one degree on the Fahrenheit scale of measuring. 
The British system of measuring heating work, or the effect pro- 
duced by the action of heat, is by what is known as foot pounds. 
Professor Allen's definition of this term foot pounds is as simple as 
we have come across. He says : " Ten units of work or ten foot 
pounds would be the amount of work done in raising ten pounds 
one foot high, or one pound ten feet high." Professor Allen thus 
calls our attention to the definite relationship between heat and 
work, which was probably first determined by Joule in 1838 while 
conducting a series of experiments. 

In measuring work the term horse power (H. P.) is fre- 
quently made use of. A horse power is 33,000 foot pounds 
per minute, or the amount of work required to raise 33,000 pounds 
one foot high per minute, and this is equivalent to 42.5 heat units 
per minute. 

As in this country the capacity of all engines and machinery, 
and all tubular and power boilers, is expressed by horse power, it 
IS well to remember that a horse power represents the energy de- 
veloped by evaporating 2.655 pounds of water into steam, and 
which is sufficient to supply 100 square feet of radiation. Fur- 



20 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

thermore, a horse power represents the condensation from 100 
square feet of direct cast-iron radiation, or approximately 90 
square feet of pipe radiation or heating coils. 

The steam is condensed by loss of heat or cooling, and we 
must know in what manner certain elements act upon the heating 
surface to cool it, and again in what manner the heat is given off 
from the radiator or heated body. 

All building material is porous and there is a loss of heat 
through walls and window glass. Again, a ventilating register 
may be open in the room. There is a constant loss of heat through 
this aperture until such time as it is closed. Therefore, to de- 
termine upon the amount of heat necessary we must take into con- 
sideration all heat losses and this we shall discuss later on in this 
work. 

Heat is radiated in straight lines or in waves from a heated 
body. If certain objects are placed in the line of these waves they 
will absorb the heat and transmit it again to some cooler body. 
On the contrary, such substances as magnesia, asbestos, hair felt, 
and the like, will prevent the radiation of the heat beyond their 
influence. For example, note the plastic covering on boilers, or the 
asbestos and hair-felt coverings placed on steam and hot-water 
pipes. Air and other gases are almost transparent to heat and, in 
fact, in many cases assist in conveying it from the source of energy 
to the body to be warmed. 

The radiating power of bodies differs materially. Polished or 
enameled surfaces radiate less heat than rough or unfinished sur- 
faces. Peclet gives the following table of the radiating power of 
bodies, the figures equaling heat units given off from a square foot 
of surface per hour for a difference of one degree Fahrenheit : 

TABLE NO. I 

Radiating Power of Bodies 



Polished Copper 


0327 


Sheet Iron 


0920 


Glass 


5940 


Cast Iron (rusted) 


6480 


Stone, Wood or Brick 

Woolen Material . . 


7358 

7522 


Water 


1.0850 





HEAT 21 

A cast-iron radiator will radiate much less heat when enameled 
than when painted with bronze or a mineral paint. 

Specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to raise the tem- 
perature of a solid or liquid body a certain number of degrees, 
taking water as a unit or standard of comparison. 

Some bodies absorb heat more rapidly than others. According 
to Walter Jones, M.E., the heat necessary to raise one pound of 
water one degree will raise 



32 lbs. of Lead 
31 lbs. of Mercury 
9 lbs. of Iron 
4% lbs. of Air 
or 2 lbs. of Ice 



one degree. 



For the practical purposes of the steam fitter it is necessary only 
that he consider: 

1. The energy necessary to produce a certain amount of heat, 
or number of heat units ; how produced, and how measured. 

2. How these heat units may be transferred, radiated or con- 
ducted from one body to another. 

3. The effect of this heat upon the cooler body to which it is 
transferred, or the so-called cooling surfaces of a room or building. 

4. The percentage of loss of energy by radiation, or other- 
wise, between the production of the heat and its delivery to the 
body to be warmed. 

In the discussion of radiation, ventilation, etc., we shall give 
other peculiarities and facts regarding the loss of heat, the causes 
leading to the same and rules for providing against the amount 
of heat loss under varying conditions. 



CHAPTER III 

Evolution of Artificial Heating Apparatus 

The arrangement of some form or method of securing warmth 
within our homes or buildings is a matter to which our attention 
has grown in keeping with our advancement as a nation. 

History relates that among the ancient Romans it was custom- 
ary for the poorer class to build fires upon a stone or brick floor 
located at one side or end of a room, the smoke and soot passing 
out of the room through holes in the roof. The wealthier class 
used braziers in their living rooms, in which was burned carefully 
dried wood. 

The heating apparatus of our forefathers was the open fire- 
place, and it is related of the old New England type of fireplace 
that it was six or eight feet in length and so deep that the children 
had blocks on which they sat far within, where they could see the 
stars up the chimney. Large logs of wood were used for fuel. 
Later, after coal could be purchased, the fireplace was built very 
much smaller. 

In either case a very large proportion of the heat thus obtained 
escaped up the chimney, probably from seventy-five to ninety per 
cent being lost in this manner. 

As the country grew in population, cities and towns sprang 
up and fuel became scarcer. Larger buildings were erected and 
the number of rooms increased until, as a matter of economy, it 
became necessary to provide some other form of heating apparatus. 

To this end the old Franklin stove was designed, followed by 
later styles more improved, all in order to provide better combus- 
tion and save the lost heat. 

Again was " necessity the mother of invention," as, to save 
labor of carrying fuel and ashes for many fires, the idea of cen- 
tralizing the heating apparatus and of warming several rooms 
from one fire, led to the adoption of the inclosed stove. Tin or 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 23 

sheet-iron pipes were used to convey the heated air to each separate 
room and from this arrangement developed the modern furnace. 

Experiments were next conducted with heated water and steam 
as means of conveying heat from a central point to various parts 
of a building, a form of heating which has been carried to such 
a state of perfection as to warrant the use of either system under 
almost any known condition, and the establishing of foundries and 
shops for the manufacture of heating apparatus. The develop- 
ment has been such that at the present time there are many millions 
of dollars invested in the business of manufacturing and installing 
apparatus for heating by steam and hot water. 

The relative efficiency of the several methods of heating may be 
given as follows : 

1. Open Fireplaces. 

S. Stoves. 

3. Hot-Air Furnaces. 

4. Steam. 

5. Hot Water. 

In classifying them in this order, we consider not only efficiency, 
but healthfulness, durability, and cost of maintenance, i. e., cost 
for fuel. 

Were healthfulness alone considered, we should prefer the open 
fireplace to either stoves or furnaces. The waste of fuel in fireplaces 
and stoves, largely also in hot-air furnaces, is too well known to 
need many comments. 

Fireplaces radiate the heat from one side of the room only, 
and stoves warm but in spots. 

Furnaces fail to produce the right results when placed in build- 
ings not well protected from the wind ; and there is no uniformity 
in temperature where any one of the three above-mentioned sys- 
tems are used. 

Furnaces as ordinarily installed are not much more satisfactory 
than stoves, and nine tenths of them are too small. They are used 
in preference to a steam or hot-water apparatus because of the 
apparent saving in cost. We say apparent saving in cost, as after 
all things are weighed, there is no saving in using a furnace in 
preference to steam or hot water, and it is well that the steam 
fitter or heating contractor has this fact clearly in mind. There- 



M PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

fore, we shall discuss this feature of furnace heating very freely 
and shall consider the matter, endeavoring to show a comparison 
between the furnace and steam or hot-water heat. 

First: As to cost and average life of the apparatus. 

Second: As to comfort and healthfulness. 

Average Life and Cost 

Where a furnace too small is installed, it is necessary, in ex- 
treme cold weather, to raise the heating surfaces to an exceedingly 
high temperature, often a red heat, in order to secure comfort. 
As a result, the expansion and contraction loosens the joints of the 
furnace and allows the sulphurous and carbonic-oxide gases and 
other poisonous products of combustion to escape through the hot- 
air pipes into the rooms above. This is true of both wrought- 
iron and cast-iron furnaces. 

Again, heating the furnace to this extremely high temperature 
shortens the life of the apparatus, with the result that ten per cent 
of the first cost is needed for repairs during the first five years, 
while, as a rule, the next five years find the furnace entirely worn 
out. 

A steam-heating apparatus has an average life of probably 
twenty-five years, the first ten years of this period without any 
repairs except of a trivial nature, such as the repacking of valves, 
etc. 

A hot-water-heating apparatus will last an even greater length 
of time, without the expense of repairs, the system being practi- 
cally indestructible. Thus it will be readily seen that while the 
cost of a furnace, as usually installed, is but one half that of a 
steam-heating apparatus, or probably two fifths that of a hot- 
water-heating apparatus, it is, as an investment, not counting 
healthfulness or the excess amount of fuel consumed, by far the 
more costly of the three systems. 

In pondering the question of cost, we have not taken into con- 
sideration the long list of fires and damaged buildings resulting 
from the " defective flue," nor the damage to house furnishings, 
due to dust and dirt from the furnace. The housewife, more than 
anyone else, knows of the constant dusting and cleaning and the 
frequency with which it is necessary to renew carpets and draperies. 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 25 

Healthfulness of Furnace Heating <x}s* Steam or Hot Water 

We have mentioned some of the disadvantages of heating with 
a furnace. Let us now consider the healthfulness of the various 
systems, the quality of the heat produced and its effect on the 
human system. 

A furnace must of necessity have an air supply. The source 
of this air supply is often very bad. Perhaps the air is admitted 
to the furnace direct from the basement or cellar in which it is 
located. This air may be contaminated with the odors from de- 
caying vegetable matter, or gases from a sewer. The air is ad- 
mitted to the furnace at its base, or from underneath the base, and 
when a fresh air supply is taken from outside the building, it is 
frequently conveyed to the furnace through an underground duct 
which is not air tight, with the result that it gathers impurities 
from the earth. The duct may run across the basement iloor and 
if not air tight, will, owing to the draught produced by the fur- 
nace, suck in the impure air from the basement through the numer- 
ous cracks or crevices. With an impure air supply, it is impossible 
to serve the occupants of the building with pure air. Again, the 
air is devitalized by passing over metal, heated often to 1,200 or 
1,500 degrees Fahr., which robs it of all its health-giving prop- 
erties. 

The advocate of the furnace will endeavor to tell of the pure 
air which is constantly admitted to the building, and its advan- 
tages — an exploded theory, as every heating and ventilating en- 
gineer knows. 

What then with devitalized air, often charged with dust or 
poisoned by gases, can we say in favor of the healthfulness of heat- 
ing with a hot-air furnace.^ Nothing, except possibly the apparent 
saving in first cost and the freedom of the house owner from par- 
ticipating in the " semiannual stovepipe performance," viz. — that 
of taking down or putting up a miscellaneous assortment of 
stovepipe loaded with soot, as would be the case where stoves 
were used. 

Heating by either steam or hot water has none of the disad- 
vantages mentioned and for this reason, since the large reduction 
in cost during the last decade, have in their several forms and 



26 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

variations, been generally adopted as the best methods of heating 
known. 

There are many buildings more or less protected from the vari- 
able winds of winter, where a furnace properly installed will heat 
all parts of the building to a uniformly comfortable temperature. 
We emphasize " properly installed " and " all parts " for the rea- 
son that the average furnace has neither of these conditions to 
recommend it. As a rule, the contractor setting the furnace 
places it near to the center of the basement in order to shorten 
the hot-air supply pipes and thereby simplify or cheapen the work. 
It is impossible to force the heated air to the side of the building 
against which the wind is blowing, and for this reason the furnace 
should be set near to the side which most frequently receives the 
action of the wind. We think it safe to say that a furnace installed 
in this manner and built heavy enough to last a considerable term 
of years, with the tin work of first quality, will cost one third more 
than the average furnace job as regularly installed, or to within 
a very small amount of the price of a low-pressure steam-heating 
apparatus. 

The Heart of the System 

In a steam or hot-water heating apparatus, the boiler or 
heater is the real heart of the system and largely upon the char- 
acter of the boiler or heater installed, depends the success of the 
apparatus as a whole. 

It has become customary to refer to the heart of a steam-heat- 
ing apparatus as a " boiler," and to the heart of a hot-water-heat- 
ing apparatus as a " heater," probably from the fact that in a 
steam-heating apparatus it is necessary to boil the water to make 
steam, while in a hot-water-heating apparatus it is necessary only 
to heat or expand the water in the heater to produce a circulation 
in the system. 

Early Types of Boilers 
There seems to be no question but that the original type of 
boiler used for steam heating was the horizontal tubular, or the 
upright tubular wrought-iron boiler, or the same character of a 
boiler as was used for power, and very much the same in outward 
appearance as those in use to-day. 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 



27 



Fig. 1 shows a standard make of tubular boiler, with full- 
arch front and manner of bricking;. 




Fig. 1. — Standard type of tubular boiler with full-arch front. 

Fig. 2 shows the same character of a boiler, with half-arch front 
and manner of bricking. 

Under " Boiler Setting " will be found explanations and di- 




FiG. 2. — Standard type of tubular boiler with half -arch front. 



rections for setting each of the above, with sketches showing ground 
plan, longitudinal section and cross section of brickwork, etc. 
The original type of upright tubular was mounted on a brick 



28 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



and iron base, forming the ash pit and supporting the grate. 
Fig. 3 shows this boiler as it is now commonly used, with a cast- 
iron portable base and without brickwork. 

One of the earliest types of wrought-iron boilers used exclu- 
sively for heating purposes was designed and patented by Mr. 
William B. Dunning, of Geneva, N. Y., and is yet manufactured 
as the Dunning Boiler in an improved form by the New York Cen- 
tral Iron Works Company. 

Fig. 4 shows the shell of this boiler; Fig. 5, the boiler as it 
appears when bricked. 

Another early type and somewhat similar character of a boiler 





Fig. 3. — Common type of upright 
tubular boiler. 



Fig. 4. — Shell of Dunning boiler. 



is shown by Fig. 6. This is known as the " Haxtun " boiler, manu- 
factured by the Kewanee Boiler Company, Kewanee, 111. 

Many other boilers of similar construction were built and sold, 
following the introduction of those illustrated, some of them having 
a local sale only, being used in the immediate vicinity where they 
were manufactured. 

It is probable that the H. B. Smith Company, of Westfield, 
Mass., were the pioneers in the manufacture of the cast-iron boiler 
for steam heating, as the Gold Boiler (see Fig. 7), manufactured 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 



29 



by this concern, was undoubtedly the first of the cast-iron steam 
I)oilers, and as such should receive more than a passing mention. 




Fig. 5. — Dunning boiler set in brickwork. 

Reference to the illustration (Fig. 8) will show the Mills 
Boiler and the manner in which this boiler is constructed. The 




Fig. 6.— The Haxtun boiler. 

sections are cast in halves, and on the square or rectangular base 
supporting the grate, these half sections are erected in pairs. The 



30 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



upper parts of the half sections are joined to a central dome or 
header, lock-nut nipples being used for this purpose. The upper 
part of each half section, as well as the header suspended between 
these half sections, form a steam chamber from which the supply 




Fig. 7.— The Gold boiler. 



pipes are taken. In depth these sections are about six inches, and 
they may be arranged to form a boiler of practically any size 
desired. 

Along either side of the boiler is a cast-iron header into which 




Fig. 8.— The Mills boiler. 

the various return pipes are connected, the water being admitted 
to the boiler through nipples connecting each individual half sec- 
tion with the return header. This connection is made in the same 
manner as the connections to the steam header with lock-nut 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 



31 



nipples. Each half section, therefore, is a unit or boiler by itself, 
contributing its quota of steam to the steam chamber above. 
This proved to be a very strong type of boiler, able to withstand 




Fig. 9. — Locomotive fire-box boiler. 

a considerable pressure and being also a quick and powerful 
steamer. 

It is worthy of note that some of the more modern boilers are 




Fig. 10. — Locomotive fire-box boiler showing smoke travel. 

built along the lines of the Mills Boiler, without the brick setting. 
We refer to the " divided-section " or " half-section " idea of 
boiler construction which we illustrate elsewhere. 



S^ PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Aside from those already mentioned, the most common type of 
wrought-iron boiler now used for heating is the locomotive fire- 
box boiler, as illustrated by Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. Fig. 9 shows a 
view of the boiler as it appears in the bricking, and Fig. 10 shows 
the smoke travel. In some localities these boilers are used largely 




Fig, 11. — Page safety sectional boiler. 




Fig. 12. — Original type of Furman boiler. 




Fig. 13. — Original type of 
Volunteer boiler. 




Fig. 14.— The Florida 
boiler. 



in apartment houses and business blocks, and while there is con- 
siderable argument as to their longevity and economical qualities, 
it is an established fact that they are comparatively quick steam- 
ers and do the work required of them. 

Still another of the early types of sectional brick-set boilers is 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 



33 



shown by Fig. 11. It is the Page Safety Sectional Boiler and it 
also is capable of withstanding a heavy pressure for a cast-iron 
heater. A few of the earlier designs of heating boilers had maga- 




FiG. 15.— The All Right boiler. 



Fig. 16. — ^The Bundy cast-iron tubular 
boiler. 



zin€ feeds similar to that of a parlor stove, although at the present 
time the number of boilers sold so equipped is very small. 

The Furman Boiler, Fig. 12, the Volunteer Boiler, Fig. 13, the 




Fig. 17. — Sections of cast-iron tubular boiler. 

Florida Borler, Fig. 14, the All Right, Fig. 15, comprise some of 
the earlier round and sectional boilers. 

Many of the early models of round boilers were cased with a 
jacket of black or galvanized iron, frequently lined with asbestos. 



34 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The latest method of boiler construction, however, dispenses with 
the brick setting and the sheet-iron casing, the sectional, as well 
as the round boilers, being portable, and, when covered, are coated 
to the depth of 1", or more, with a plastic cement made of a mix- 
ture of magnesia and asbestos. 

A departure from the regular style of cast-iron sectional boiler 
is shown by Figs. 16 and 17. It is the Bundy Tubular Boiler 




Fig. 18.— The Gorton boiler. 



and is on the order of the Scotch Marine type of construction. 
The Gorton Side-feed Boiler, as shown by Fig. 18, is a peculiar 
t3^pe of Mrought-iron boiler construction. 

So rapid has been the advancement in methods of boiler con- 
struction during the past ten to twenty years that a large number 
of styles have been and are now being manufactured, approximat- 
ing probably over one hundred varieties. 

Among the round boilers may be found, in addition to those 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 



35 



already mentioned, the Doric, Richardson, Boynton, Cambridge, 
Ideal, Richmond, Orbis, Winchester, Capitol Mascot, Arco and 
Radiant. 

In the list of manufactured sectional boilers we find the Mercer, 
Richmond, American, Ideal, Thermo, Carton, Sunray, Sunshine, 





Fig. 19. — Early type of Gurney hot- 
water heater. 



Fig. 20.— The Spence 
hot-water heater. 



Boynton, Cornell, Monarch, Furman, Capitol, Gem, Model, 
Thatcher, Richardson, Royal and many others which lack of space 
prevents our mentioning. 

Hot-Water Heaters 

What has been said regarding the multiplicity of steam boilers 
is equally applicable to hot-water heaters. 

One of the pioneer heaters was the Gurney, shown by Fig. 19. 
In the Spence Heater, Fig. 20, we have another early design of a 
hot-water heater. Each of these heaters was originally made in 
Canada, as was also the Champion, a heater of square construction 
manufactured at Montreal by Rogers & King. 

The Spence Heater in Canada was known by the name 
" Daisy," and it was after being brought to this country that it 
was called the " Spence." This heater in this country was orig- 
inally manufactured by The National Hot Water Heater Co., 



36 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



of Boston, Mass., long since out of business, and is now one of the 
productions of the Pierce, Butler & Pierce Mfg. Co., Syra- 
cuse, N. Y. 

The firm of E. 8z C. Gurney Co., of Toronto, Canada, were the 





Fig. 21. — ^Improved Gurney 
heater. 



Fig. 22.— The Perfect hot- 
water heater. 



original builders of the Gurney, which, when brought to this coun- 
try in the year 1884, was manufactured under the same firm name, 
but now known as the Gurney Heater Mfg. Co. This boiler was 




Fig. 23.— The Hitchings hot-water 
heater. 



Fig. 24. — Sectional view of hot-water 
heater. 



further improved as shown by Fig. 21, and later, still other im- 
provements were made in its construction. 

The Perfect Heater, Fig. 22, was another of the old-time 
heaters which helped to contribute to the success of hot-water 
heating in this country. 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 



37 



We have still another type in the Hitchings Boiler, Fig. 23 
and Fig. 24. This was an old-time cast-iron heater of peculiar 
construction, originally intended for the heating of hothouses, 
and known as a Corrugated Fire-Box Boiler. It was first made 
about the year 1867. The concern who manufactured it was es- 
tablished in 1844, and their first production was a conical-shaped 
affair. 

Fig. 25 shows the Carton, one of a number of later styles of 
sectional hot-water heaters. 

The advancement in the manufacture of hot-water heaters has 
kept pace with the improvements in the steam boiler, and many 




Fig. 25. — The Carton hot-water heater. 

manufacturers make both steam and hot-water heaters under the 
same name and with the same general form of construction. 

We have spoken of the half-section or divided-section type of 
boiler construction, as shown by the original Mills Boiler. This 
has, in a very great measure, come to be a favorite method of build- 
ing sectional boilers. The Capitol, The Monarch Sunshine, and 
the Henderson Thermo are boilers of this type. Fig. 26 shows a 
line drawing of the Thermo, illustrating the style of sections and 
the manner of nippling them together. 

Naturally it would seem that with such a large number of 
makes and types of boilers, the steam fitter or heating contractor 
would get confused in the selection of a suitable boiler or heater, 
but such should not be the case. Each individual fitter may have 



88 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

his own ideas of what constitutes a good boiler or heater, and 
select his favorite type of boiler construction. Again, his cus- 
tomer may have previously decided upon the make of heater he 




Fig. 26. — Line cut of the Thermo hot-water heater. 

wishes installed, — a fact which the fitter cannot afford to overlook, 
as it is much easier to sell a prospective customer what he wants 
than what he does not desire, or thinks that he does not. 



What Constitutes a Good Boiler 

There are a number of features that should be considered when 
endeavoring to select a good boiler for steam heating, or a heater 
for hot-water heating. A few pointers : 

1. Select a boiler manufactured by a Company or firm of 
unquestioned business standing — a reputable concern whose guar- 
antee is good. Reliable manufacturers of first-class goods never 



EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 39 

hesitate to make good any defect which may develop in their 
product. 

2. Select a boiler which is so constructed as to permit of easy 
and perfect cleaning of all heating surfaces. Soot is one of the 
greatest of nonconductors and a boiler which cannot be thor- 
oughly cleaned, while it is in operation, will be expensive to use 
and short-lived. 

3. The fire box should be spacious and deep below the feed 
door, in order to provide for perfect combustion and a depth of 
fire that will last for hours without attention. 

4. The boiler should have no packed joints to dry out and leak. 
Push or screw nipples should be the medium for connecting the 
various parts ; and so far as is possible, no bolts should pass 
through the w^ater w^ays. 

5. The grate is a particular part of the apparatus. It should 
be of such a construction as to admit of easy cleaning and at 
the same time heavy enough to carry its load of coal without sag- 
ging. The grate should be so arranged as to be readily removable 
from the heater and replaced, in case repairs are necessary. 

6. Select a boiler with a large amount of fire surface and so 
constructed as to have sufficient fire travel, or flue surface to utilize 
as many of the heat units from the coal consumed as is possible. 

7. The height of the boiler should not be so great as to inter- 
fere with a giving of the proper pitch to the piping. 

8. If a steam boiler, see that there is provision for a sufficient 
depth of water above the crown sheet, or prime heating surfaces, 
to allow the bubbles or globules of steam passing upward through 
the water to liberate without commotion. This means a steady 
water line in the boiler. 

9. There should be a positive circulation of the water through 
all parts of the boiler. 

10. Select a boiler full large for the work, in order to avoid 
straining the boiler or wasting fuel by forcing. The greatest 
economy in the consumption of fuel is attained when the fire burns 
freely and evenly under normal conditions of draught. 

The ratings of house-heating boilers have, as a rule, been 
worked out from actual use and experience and they may generally 
be safely accepted by the steam fitter or house owner. 



CHAPTER IV 

Boiler Surfaces and Settings 

The heating surfaces in all boilers, whether cast or wrought 
iron, are of two kinds, namely, direct surface and flue surface. 
Direct surface is that immediately above and surrounding the fire, 
or those parts of a boiler against which the light from the incan- 
descent fuel shines. Flue surface is that which receives the heat 
from the burning gases while traversing from the combustion cham- 
ber to the smoke outlet of the boiler. 

Direct surface is more effective than flue surface, the propor- 
tion being about three to one. It would seem, therefore, that the 
boiler presenting the most direct surface to the action of the fire 
would be the most effective. This is true only in a measure, as 
a boiler may have a large amount of direct surface and yet have 
so little flue surface, or distance of fire travel, that the heat from 
the gases of combustion is not thoroughly extracted before pass- 
ing out into the chimney, and a large number of heat units from 
the fuel consumed are therefore wasted. 

While it is desirable to have a large proportion of direct heat- 
ing surface, there must be sufficient flue surface, or distance of 
fire travel, to consume the gases and render the direct surface 
effective. It is also desirable that the heating surface should be 
broken up in such shape that the heat from the fire and the hot 
gases should impinge at right angles against it and extract as 
much of the available heat as is possible. 

In the manufacture of some of the earlier types of sectional 

boilers, the builders were imbued with the idea that the length of 

a boiler or size of it might be increased indefinitely by adding more 

sections, each having the same area or size of flues. Manifestly 

this is wrong, and most manufacturers have come to understand 

that if a certain area of flue opening through sections is right for 

a five-section heater, this same area is too small for a heater of 

40 



BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 41 

ten sections, and the flue surfaces are now increased by making 
the heater in several widths. The proportion of direct and flue 
surfaces in any heater depends entirely upon the character of its 
construction. 

Grate Surface 

In all house-heating boilers there should be a low rate of com- 
bustion, and the grate surface should be so proportioned with the 
heating surface that this may be accomplished. The consumption 
of fuel should not exceed six or eight pounds of coal per square 
foot per hour, depending upon the quality of the fuel and the 
management of the apparatus. 

Tests are usually made by evaporation and under perfect con- 
ditions of draught, a pound of the best anthracite coal will evapo- 
rate from twelve to fifteen pounds of water. However, we never 
reach perfect conditions of draught in a heating apparatus, as there 
is always a loss of from twenty-five to forty per cent of the heat 
up the chimney flue. Some manufacturers of boilers claim a rate 
of evaporation of ten pounds of water per pound of fuel. The 
average is much less, and a low-pressure boiler that will evaporate 
eight pounds of water per pound of fuel is considered as economical. 

In the locomotive fire-box type of heating boiler, the ratio of 
grate to steam radiation capacity (gross) is from 1 to 190 in 
the smaller sizes, to 1 to 275 in the larger sizes ; that is to say, 
for each square foot of grate, 190 to 275 sq. ft. of steam radiation 
capacity is figured. 

In cast-iron sectional boilers, the ratio of grate surface and 
steam radiation capacity is from 1 to 175, to 1 to 220, while in 
round cast-iron heaters, the rating is quite a little less, the ratio 
being from 1 to 160, up to 1 to 180. 

Where tubular boilers are used for heating, it is customary to 
allow one hundred feet of direct cast-iron radiation per horse power, 
considering 15 sq. ft. of heating surface as one horse power. 

Water Surface 

The water surface necessary in a low-pressure boiler depends 
largely upon the construction of the same. A boiler so con- 
structed as to have a* perfect circulation in all of its parts, re- 



42 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

quires less water than a boiler in which this circulation is not 
maintained. It is necessary to have sufficient water surface in 
order that the steam bubbles may liberate easily without disturb- 
ing the water line, or carrying water into the steam supply pipes 
of the heating system. A boiler constructed so that all of the 
water ways are small and the water consequently divided into small 
parts, should steam quicker and prove more economical than a 
boiler where the water is held in large bodies. The water divided 
into smaller parts is more easily and quickly heated and a circu- 
lation of the water within the boiler more readily established. 

Boiler Setting 

The large majority of boilers now used for heating have what 
is known as a " portable setting." The early types of heating 
boilers were bricked in. At the present time, aside from the tubular 
or fire-box boilers, but very few of the modern boilers are bricked. 
Many require no covering whatever, although it is customary to 
cover some of the heaters with a plastic covering of magnesia and 
asbestos, which, as its name indicates, is applied in the form of 
plaster and is dried or baked on the surfaces to be covered. This 
covering is usually put on about 9," thick and is sufficient to pre- 
vent the radiation of heat in the cellar or boiler room, and also 
adds to the efficiency and appearance of the boiler. The castings 
should be heated before applying the covering. 

Many boilers have a somewhat low or shallow base or ash pit, 
and when using a boiler of this nature, and the height of boiler 
cellar will allow, it is a good plan to set it on a raised foundation 
of brick two or three courses in height, leaving the center hollow. 
This provides a good, deep ash pit, reducing the probability of 
burning out the grate, which frequently happens when the ashes are 
packed underneath it. 

Fig. 27 shows the manner of bricking a locomotive fire-box 
boiler, when it is desired to take the smoke out at the front end, 
and Fig. 28 shows the method of bricking the same boiler, where 
the smoke is taken out at the back end. As in this boiler the fire 
or flame does not come in contact with the brickwork, no fire brick 
are necessary. 



BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 



43 




44 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




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46 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VEXTILATIOX 



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BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 



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48 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



given, the fire brick are indicated by the heavy shading of the 
drawing. The tables given, accompanying each illustration, give 




measurements, as indicated by the letters on the drawing and the 
number of common and fire brick necessary for each size of boiler 
that is given. 



BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 



49 



All steam boilers used for heating should be provided with 
the regulation set of trimmings. By " regulation set " we mean 
safety valve, steam gauge, automatic damper regulator, water 
column and glass, blow-off or draw-off cock, and a complete set 
of cleaning and firing tools, and of these trimmings and tools we 
wish to speak in detail. 

The Safety Valve 

The safety valve on a steam boiler should be of a kind not liable 
to stick or become inoperative, as accidents are frequently the 
result of this occurrence. 

There are three kinds of safety valves in general use, the 
weighted valve, as shown by Fig. 31, the lever valve, shown by 




r~\ 




Fig. 32. — ^Lever safety valve. 




Fig. 31.— Weighted 
safety valve. 



Fig. 33.— Spring 
safety valve. 



Fig. 32, and the spring valve, often called the " pop safety valve," 
shown by Fig. 33. 

The weighted safety valve is a simple ground seat valve, the 
disc of which is held against the seat by a weight usually in the 
form of a cast-iron ball placed or screwed on the top of the stem. 
This ball varies in weight, according to the size of the valve. 

The lever safety valve shown is a type of valve in general use 
not only on steam boilers, but on other work as well, and this is 
an excellent form of safety valve. It may be regulated to operate 
at different pressures by adjusting the weight or hanging it in 
different positions on the lever until sufficient pressure has accumu- 
lated to operate it. 



50 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

This type of valve, as well as the others mentioned, is used ex- 
tensively on low-pressure as well as high-pressure boilers. 

The safety valve should never be weighted down with a weight 
heavier than that accompanying the valve. We have seen the levers 
of safety valves held down by a block or board wedged between 
the lever and a joist of the floor above — a ver}^ careless practice 
and one liable to cause serious damage to person or property. We, 
therefore, favor the spring, or " pop," valve, owing to the fact 
that it cannot be easily tampered with. The attendant of a steam 
boiler should frequently try the safety valve by releasing it, in 
order that he may know that it is in good condition. 

The Steam Gauge 

Low-pressure steam gauges, as used with boilers for heating, 
are made to register about thirty pounds. Fig. 34? illustrates a 
gauge of this character and while it is customary to provide for 
all boilers, high or low pressure, a gauge registering double the 
working pressure, it is very seldom that the pressure exceeds ten 
pounds on a boiler used for low-pressure heating. 

A stopcock should always be provided with the gauge in case 
it is found necessary to remove it for cleaning or adjustment. In 
connecting the gauge, a siphon should be used to prevent dry 
steam from entering the gauge. It is good practice to fill the loop 
of this siphon with water before screwing on the gauge. 

The Automatic Damper Regulator 

All steam boilers, high or low pressure, should be provided with 
an automatic damper regulator. Without this regulation it would 
be impossible to control the boiler except by constant watching 
and work of the attendant in charge of the boiler. 

Automatic damper regulators for low-pressure boilers are very 
simple affairs, the regulators for high pressure being more com- 
plicated. There are a variety of high-pressure regulators on the 
market, which our space will not permit of illustrating or describ- 
ing. It is of the low-pressure regulator that we desire more par- 
ticularly to speak. All of them are alike in principle and very 
similar in design, to that shown by Fig. 35. Two castings shaped 



BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 



51 



almost exactly like the old-fashioned soup plate form the bowl of 
the regulator, the upper one inverted and bolted face to face with 
the lower, with the rubber diaphragm between, the lower casting 
of the bowl being tapped for a connection with the boiler. The 
upper casting of the bowl has a round orifice or opening in the 
center, through which a small plunger protrudes, the lower side 
of the plunger resting on the rubber diaphragm. As the pressure 
increases under the rubber diaphragm, it is expanded, forcing the 
plunger upward. To the top of the plunger is bolted a wrought- 
iron rod or lever, at point marked " A " on the illustration. At 
point marked " B " there are two lips which extend upward from 
the outer edge of the upper bowl casting, these lips forming the 
fulcrum, the lever being bolted between the lips at this point. The 




Fig. 35. — Low-pressure damper 
regulator. 



Fig. 34. — Low-pressure steam gauge. 



regulator is set so that the fulcrum is on the side toward the front 
of the boiler. A weight, marked " C," is placed on the lever at 
a point back of the plunger. This weight is movable and by 
placing it on the lever farther from or nearer to the plunger, a 
greater or lesser pressure is required to operate the lever. 

On some regulators there is a chain extending from the front 
end of the lever only, this chain connecting with the draught door 
of the boiler. On most regulators, however, there are two chains, 
one from either end of the rod. The front chain connects with 
the draught door and the rear chain connects with the cold-air 
check door at the rear of the boiler, the chains being so adjusted 
that when the lever moves to close the draught door, it will also 
open the cold-air check. 



52 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The steam should never come in contact with the rubber dia- 
phragm, and for this reason a water bottle or trap is used in 
connecting the regulator to the boiler. 




Fig. 36. — Showing connection and 
action of regulator. 



Fig. 37. — Showing connection and 
action of resrulator. 



Many fitters of limited experience become confused in adjust- 
ing the chains to draught and check doors, and in order to make 
this plain, we illustrate as in Figs. 36, 37 and 38, showing the 
three positions of the regulator in action. " A " represents the 




Fig. 38. — Showing connection and action of regulator. 

draught door being a part of the base or ash-pit front ; " B " the 
cold-air check, a door on the smoke connection at rear of boiler; 
" C " the trap used in connecting regulator to boiler ; " D " the 



BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 53 

diaphragm castings with rubber between ; " E " the weight, or 
ball, on lever ; " F " the smoke pipe, and " G " the smoke con- 
nection to boiler. 

Fig. 36 shows the adjustment of chains when draught is on the 
boiler. Note that the front chain is taut, the draught door being 
held open. The rear chain is slack, the check door being shut. 
In this position the doors remain until sufficient pressure is raised 
to operate regulator, when the plunger is slowly raised, the lever 
allowing draught door " A " to gradually close. 

Fig. 37 shows the operation of the chains when draught door 
is closed. Note that the rear chain is yet slack, although there 
is no draught on the boiler. If the pressure of the boiler is not 
held in check by the closing of the draught door, the plunger in 
the diaphragm will continue to rise until, as shown by Fig. 38, 
the rear chain becomes taut and opens the check draught door at 
the rear of boiler, thus effectually checking the fire. The weight 
on the lever may be set in such a manner that both draught and 
check doors remain closed. 

The Water Column and Gauge Glass 

Fig. 39 shows a standard size of water column, with gauge 
cocks and water gauge. The try cocks, of which there are three, 
are not shown on the drawing. These try cocks are screwed into 
the w^ater column at points marked " A " on the drawing. While 
it is desirable to use three try cocks, it is not absolutely necessary, 
and many manufacturers of heating boilers make use of but two. 
The water column should be at least two and one half inches 
(^% ') ill diameter and fourteen (14") or fifteen (15") inches in 
length. 

On the illustration, " B " is the gauge glass, " C " the guard 
rods, " D " the drip cock, which should be placed at the bottom 
of all water gauges, and " E " the packing or rubber washer used 
to make tight joints around the glass. 

The Blow-Off Cock 

Fig. 40, the blow off or drain cock, often called, also, sediment 
cock, is a necessary trimming to every boiler. At the lowest part 
of the boiler, there should be an opening to which a pipe con- 



54 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



nection can be made to drain the boiler or heating system. This 
connection must have a valve, and we have seen all sorts of valves 
used for this purpose. A drain cock, known also as a plug cock, 
should always be used, as it has a straight opening through which 





Fig. 40. — Steam or "blow-off" cock. 



Fig. 39. — Water column and gauge. 

the sediment or scale from the boiler can pass without choking. 
Many of the smaller sizes of boilers are tapped for a %" blow off; 
a 1'' or 1%," opening would be better. 

Firing Tools and Brushes 

All boilers should be provided with firing tools, consisting of 
ash hoe, poker and slice bar, and with brushes for cleaning the 
heating surfaces and flues, in order that the attendant may properly 
fire and clean the boiler. Nearly all makers of low-pressure boilers 
furnish firing tools, as well as specially designed brushes. 

Fusible Plug 

When we take into consideration the thousands of boilers in 
use for heating purposes and the fact that but very few explosions 
occur, it would seem that all necessary precautions had been taken 
when the boiler is provided with a complete set of trimmings. How- 



BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 55 

ever the Boiler Inspection Bureaus of some states, and some in- 
surance companies, demand that a fusible plug be placed on all 
heating boilers. 

This consists of a brass plug, having usually a hexagon head, 
through the center of which there is an opening or core. This 
core is filled with Banca Tin, a m.etal which melts at about 430 
degrees Fahr. The boiler is tapped at a point below what might 
be termed the low-water line, and the fusible plug inserted. Should 
the water in the boiler get below the plug, the heat from the hot 
iron will melt the tin, thus making an opening to the atmosphere 
and giving relief. 



CHAPTER V 

The Chimney Flue 

There is no one part of a steam or hot-water heating appara- 
tus which contributes so largely to its success or failure as the 
chimney to which the boiler or heater is connected. 

The chimney is comparatively a modern invention. It is said 
that none of the old Roman ruins, nor the restored buildings in 
Herculaneum or Pompeii have chimneys ; the chimney of that period 
consisted of a hole in the roof. The modern chimney was first 
used in the fourteenth century. 

At the time steam and hot water were first used for heating 



















PLASTERED BRICK^ 









































\\ IRON -J// 



























Fig. 41. — ^Round and square chimney flues. 

purposes in this country but very little attention was given to 
the chimney, with the result that many of the heating plants then 
installed failed to work satisfactorily. Experience has taught us 
several facts in the building and use of chimneys : 

First: — A chimney used for a low-pressure steam or a hot- 
water heating apparatus should have no other opening than that 
used for the heating apparatus. 

Second: — The draught in a chimney is spiral; therefore, 
round chimneys, or those as nearly square as possible, are most 

56 



THE CHIMNEY FLUE 



5T 



effective. A round chimney 12" in diameter, having an area of 
approximately 113 sq. in., is as effective as a chimney 12" X 12" 
having an area of 144 sq. in. See Fig. 41. 




GOOD DmFT 



POOR DRAFT 



Fig. 42. — Proper and improper construction of chimneys 

Third : — Adding height to a chimney will increase the velocity 
of the draught and add to the fuel consumption. As we desire a 
low rate of combustion in a low-pressure boiler or hot-water heater,, 
greater area and less proportionate height of the flue is desirable. 















(T. 


V.^:-:'U;:V;Wv:;/-;::\;^^-W:i^ 




% 


TILE-*^ 














Vi- 


•■:V:■.v■.v^■^;=•.^M^•v^^^.v^■■;; 













Fig. 43. — Tile-lined chimney flue. 

Fourth: — The height of a chimney should be great enough to- 
preclude the possibility of interference with the draught by sur- 



58 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

rounding buildings, trees, or the roof of the building of which 
the chimney forms a part. Eig. 42 illustrates the character of 
this interference. 

Eifth : — The chimney should be built straight upward without 
any offsets, which cause friction and interfere with the draught ; 
and the inside lining should be as smooth as possible, a tile-lined 
flue being superior to all others. See Eig. 43. 

Sizes of Chimneys 

The following table we give as the result of practical expe- 
rience with chimneys on heating work and may be safely accepted: 

TABLE IV 



Cubic Feet. 
Contents of Building. 


Sq. Ft. 

Direct 

Steam Radn. 


Sq. Ft. 

Hot-Water 

Radn. 


Round, 

Tile or Iron 

— Inside. 

Inches. 


Square or 
Rectangu- 
lar—Tile 
or Brick. 
Inches. 


10,000- 20,000 
20,000- 45,000 
45,000- 75,000 
75,000-140,000 
140,000-200,000 
200,000-350,000 


250 to 450 

450 to 700 

700 to 1,200 

1,200 to 2,400 

2,400 to 3,500 

3,500 to 5,000 


300 to 800 
800 to 1,200 
1,200 to 2,200 
2,200 to 3,600 
3,600 to 5,200 
5,200 to 8,000 


8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18. 


8X 8 
8X12 
12X12 
12X16 
16X16 
16X20 



It will interest our readers to know what other authorities say 
regarding chimney sizes, and we shall therefore quote from some 
of them. 

Lawler in his work on steam and hot-water heating gives a 
graphic diagram (see Eig. 44) which gives the proportion of 
grate surface, heating surface and chimney area, and he says : 
" It will be noticed that one square foot of grate surface will sup- 
ply 36 sq. ft. of boiler surface ; and this amount of grate and 
boiler surface will carry 196 sq. ft. of direct radiating surface 
for heating purposes. The area of the chimney must be taken into 
consideration and for this amount of grate and boiler surface, 
we allow 49 sq. in. Eor low-pressure gravity steam-heating plants, 
carrying over 1,000 sq. ft. of radiation, the size of chimney may 
be reduced somewhat less in proportion to that shown." 

Jones, an English authority, says : " Eor steam boilers where 



THE CHIMNEY FLUE 



59 



^ keen or rapid draught is required, it is necessary to have lofty 
chimneys, but for hot-water boilers they are not often available, 
low chimneys being generally sufficient. Where practicable the 
height of chimney should be twenty-five per cent to fifty per cent 
greater than the total length of horizontal flues." 



D 

CRATE SURFACE 





36 SQ 


FEET 













































































BOILER SURFACE 



CHIMNEf SURFACE 













196 SQ, 


FEET 




































































































































































































































































































































































































_ 






_.J 











DIRECT STEAM RADIATING SURFACE 



Fig. 44. — Diagram of flue capacity. 

(The author refers to length of fire travel.) " The total 
length (horizontal) of flues should not in any case exceed the 
height of the chimney." 

Baldwin says : " The chimney must be capable of passing suffi- 
cient air for the greatest consumption of fuel ever likely to be used 
in the apparatus. Less air will not do. More than is needed does 
no harm, for it is within the power of the operator or the auto- 
matic draught regulator to diminish the quantity of air." 

We would like to add to the above by saying that a chimney 
is only as large as its smallest area, and if at any point in its con- 
struction, for no matter how short a distance, the area is reduced 
for any cause whatsoever, the area of the entire flue must be figured 
according to its size at the point of reduction. 



Elements of a Good Flue 

The flue should be properly proportioned according to the size 
of heater or amount of radiating surface used. 

It should have no obstructions, and in height should extend 



60 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

well above the roof and higher than surrounding buildings, trees,, 
etc. 

There should be only one smoke-pipe hole, and that used to 
connect with boiler. 

The area of the flue should be maintained full size from bot- 
tom to top without offsets. 

A flue 8" X 8" is the smallest that should be provided for a 
heating apparatus. Velocity sufficient to carry burning paper 
up the flue does not indicate a perfect chimney. See that area 
is provided as well as velocity (meaning height). 

If flue opening extends below the smoke-pipe entrance, fill it up 
with dirt, broken brick or other material at hand, to a point level 
with the bottom of smoke-pipe hole. If this is neglected, an air 
pocket will be formed, causing down draught in the chimney. 

Take no chances on a chimney until the above conditions are 
fulfilled: 

There are some few facts regarding chimney construction that 
are worthy of note. We have particular reference to the materials 
used in their erection and to the location of the chimneys. In the 
observance of various chimneys note that at the top, frequently 
for a distance of from four to five feet, the bricks have become 
loosened and seem about ready to fall. The reason for this is that 
such bricks were laid with lime mortar, and the action of the sul- 
phuric acid on the lime decomposes it, thus allowing the sand to 
loosen. Through the action of the wind and weather and also 
the settling of the bricks they blow or fall out, leaving cracks 
or openings in the brickwork of the chimney. 

Brick chimneys laid with cement are better, as the sulphuric 
acid will not injuriously afl'ect the cement. 

Unlined chimneys should be plastered smooth on the inside in 
order to reduce the friction as much as possible and thereby in- 
crease the velocity of the draught. 

It is a very good plan to build the chimney up through the 
center of the house. The warmer the air surrounding the chim- 
ney, the less condensation of the smoke and gases and the greater 
the efficiency of the flue. 

The foundation for the chimney should be adequate to support 
the weight upon it without settling. Cracked walls, loose chim- 



THE CHIMNEY FLUE 



61 



neys and the like can usually be traced to a weak foundation, 
which is also frequently the cause of disastrous fires. With the 
pressure of the atmosphere exerted against the ascending column 
of smoke and gases, the smallest crack or opening in the walls 
of the chimney will prove troublesome and dangerous. 

Masons and contractors give too little attention to chimney 
building, with the result that many chimneys are improperly and 
loosely built, of too small area or poor design. In order to justly 
protect themselves from the unsatisfactory results arising from 
such methods of chimney erection, many heating contractors state 
clearly in their specifications that the owner must furnish a good 
and sufficient flue, and that the heating contractor will not be re- 
sponsible for failure of the apparatus due to poor draught. 

Heights of Chimneys 

The following table of heights and area will be found to be 
substantially correct. One hundred square feet of radiation may be 
allowed for each H. P. given in the table. 

TABLE V 



Square Chimney. 
Side of Square. 


S " 
-c'-t 
Q a 


1 

is 

c 

CO 




Height of Chimneys in Feet. 
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 125 150 175 


Commercial Horse Power of Boilers. 


16X16 
19X19 

22X22 
24X24 
27X27 
30X30 
32X32 
35X35 
38X38 
43X43 
48X48 
54X54 
59X59 
64X64 
70X70 
75X75 
80X80 
86X86 


18 
21 
24 
27 
30 
33 
36 
39 
42 
48 
54 
60 
66 
72 
78 
84 
90 
96 


1.77 

2.41 

3.14 

3.98 

4.91 

5.94 

7.07 

8.30 

9.62 

12.57 

15.90 

19.64 

23.76 

28.27 

33.18 

38.48 

44.18 

50.27 


.97 

1.47 

2.08 

2.78 

3.58 

4.48 

5.47 

6.57 

7.76 

10.44 

13.51 

16.98 

20.83 

25.08 

29.73 

34.76 

40.19 

46.01 


23 
35 
49 
65 


.5 
38 
54 
72 
92 
115 
141 


27 

41 

58 

78 

100 

125 

152 

183 

216 






























62 
83 
107 
133 
163 
196 
231 
311 


























lis 












141 
173 

208 
245 
330 

427 
536 












183 
219 
258 
348 
448 
565 
694 
835 






















271 
365 

472 
593 
728 
876 
1,038 
1,214 












389 

503 

632 

776 

934 

1,107 

1,294 

1,496 












551 
692 
849 
1,023 
1,212 
1,418 
1,639 
1,876 


"748 
918 
1,105 
1,300 
1,500 
1,800 
2,000 


.... 



























































































62 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Attention is called to the table " Capacities of Stacks " given 
in the last chapter of this book. 

The height of the average house or other building is usually 
sufficient for a chimney of ordinary area. However, for larger 
work it is well that the height, area, etc., of the chimney be care- 
fully proportioned in order that the best results may be obtained 
from the heating apparatus and the most economical service from 
the amount of fuel consumed. 



CHAPTER VI 



PIPE AND FITTINGS 



Pipe 

Wrought-iron tubes of the character we to-day call pipe 
were first made in England and later (about the year 1834) were 
originally manufactured in this country by the firm of Morris, 
Tasker & Morris at Philadelphia, who afterwards built a tube 
mill known as the Pascal Iron Works. In 1849 a tube plant was 
erected at Maiden, Mass., known as the Wanalancet Iron & Tube 
Works, the firm of Walworth & Nason, of Boston, being the prin- 
cipal owners of this Company. The manufacture of pipe has now 
come to be a very important part of the iron and steel industry 
of this country. 

TABLE VI 

Standard Wrought Iron Pipe 







. 




^ 


^'o 


^^ ^ 




^ craJ 




G 






nil ^ 






0) ?: 3 -y 


c a;0 3 


Vs 


.068 


.24 


27 


2513. 




.024 


0.0583 


9.44 


H 


.088 


.42 


18 


1383.3 .. 




.044 


0.1041 


7.075 


Vs 


.091 


.56 


18 


751.5 .. 




.082 


0.1917 


5.657 


¥, 


.109 


.84 


14 


472.4 .. 




.132 


0.3048 


4.547 


% 


.113 


1.12 


14 


270.00 .. 




.25 


0.5333 


3.637 


1 


.134 


1.67 


IIU 


160.90 


006 


.37 


0.8627 


2.903 


IK 


.140 


2.24 


nu 


96.25 


010 


.647 


1.496 


2.301 


\'A 


.145 


2.68 


ny2 


70.66 


014 


.881 


2.038 


2.010 


2 


. 154 


3.61 


113 2 


42.91 


023 


1.45. 


3.356 


1.608 


21^ 


.204 


5.74 


8 


30.10 


032 


2.07 


4.784 


1.328 


3 


.217 


7.54 


8 


19.50 


051 


3.20 


7.388 


1.091 


3)^ 


.226 


9.00 


8 


14.57 


069 


4.28 


9.887 


0.955 


4 


.237 


10.66 


8 


11.31 


088 


5.50 


12.730 


0.849 


41-^ 


.246 


12.49 


8 


9.02 


111 


6.92 


15.961 


0.764 


5 ^ 


.259 


14.50 


8 


7.20 


138 


8.63 


19.990 


0.687 


6 


.280 


18.76 


8 


4.98 


197 


12.25 


28.889 


0.577 


7 


.301 


23.27 


8 


3.72 


270 


16.87 


38 . 738 


0.501 


8 


.322 


28.18 


8 


2.88 


340 


21.61 


50.039 


0.443 


9 


.344 


33.70 


8 


2.29 


440 


27.25 


62.733 


0.397 


10 


.366 


40.00 


8 


1.82 


550 


34.50 


78.838 


0.355 



63 



64 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The pipe used for steam, water and gas is graded in size 
from %" upward to the larger sizes. The internal diameter forms 
the basis of the pipe size as given. Pipe at present is manufac- 
tured in three thicknesses or weights, known commercially as 
" Standard," " Extra Strong " and " Double Extra Strong," the 
" Standard " weight being used on all steam and hot-water heat- 
ing work, and all reference to pipe in this book will apply to the 
standard weight unless stated otherwise. 

Among the tables published in the last chapter of this work 
Avill be found tables of sizes, weights, etc., of " Extra Strong " and 
" Double Extra Strong " pipe. 

Pipe up to and including 1%" in size is what is known as 
^' butt welded," 1% ' ^^^ larger, being " lap welded " and is manu- 
factured in lengths varying from 16 to 20 feet. 

Threading of Pipe 

All pipe is now threaded uniformly, the Briggs' standard of 
pipe-thread sizes being used by all manufacturers. The taper is 
an inclination of 1 in 32 to the axis, or %" to 1 foot. 

Bending of Pipe 

Some years ago it was a common occurrence to bend pipe, where 
offsets were needed, or change of direction required. The piece 
of pipe to be bent was filled with sand and both ends capped, the 
sand acting as an aid in preserving the form of the pipe, without 
flattening. It was then heated to a cherry-red color and bent to 
the desired form. In these later years but very little pipe is bent, 
the offsets or changes of direction being made with the use of cast- 
iron or malleable-iron fittings. 

The smaller sizes of pipe, such as are used for water or gas 
service, are frequently bent by the plumber without heating and 
without the use of sand. When it becomes necessary to do any 
considerable amount of work of this character, it is better to use 
bending blocks or bending forms. 

Expansion of Pipe 

In heating work the expansion of pipe, when heated, must al- 
ways be taken into consideration and opportunity given the pipe 



PIPE AND FITTINGS 



65 



to stretch without breaking fittings or straining joints. To this 
end all mains should be hung or supported by expansion hangers 
as shown by Fig. 45. Pipe connections, particularly on steam 
work, should be made by using elbows to form a swing or expan- 
sion joint. We shall speak of this more fully in discussing methods 
of steam piping. 

Whenever pipe is run through boxing, tile or other form of 
conduit, a roller support (see Fig. 46) should be used. 





Fig. 46. — Roller support for piping. 



Fig. 45. — Expansion pipe hangers. 



Pipe heated from 30 degrees to SIS degrees will expand about 
IS/s" in 100 feet of length. 

The following table gives the expansion of 100 lineal feet of 
pipe heated to various degrees of temperature. 



TABLE VII 

Expansion of Wrought-Iron Pipe 



Temperature 

of the Air 

Wiien Pipe 

Is Fitted. 


Length 
of Pipe 
When 
Fitted. 
Ft. 


Length of Pipe When Heated to — 


215° 


265° 


297° 


338° 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Zero 

sr 

64° 


100 
100 
100 


100 
100 
100 


1.72 
1.47 
1.21 


100 
100 
100 


2.12 

1.78 
1.61 


100 
100 
100 


2.31 
2.12 

1.87 


100 
100 
100 


2.70 
2.45 
2.19 



The number of degrees pipe is heated, corresponding approx- 
imately to steam pressure, as follows : 

S15° = 1 lb. pressure. 
^Q5° = 25 lbs. pressure. 
297° ^ 50 lbs. pressure. 
= 100 lbs. pressure. 



66 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Wrought-Iron or Steel Pipe 

Up to the year 1885, approximately, all pipe was made of 
wrought iron. At about this time the manufacture of welded steel 
pipe on a commercial basis was started. The difficulties experi- 
enced before in its manufacture, principally in welding, had been 
overcome by improvement, so that it could now be readily welded. 
The first of the steel pipe seemed hard and brittle and the steam 
fitter had considerable trouble in threading it. However, as now 
manufactured it is soft and tough in fiber and a die, if blunt, will 
tear the thread. Consequently it is necessary that the die be sharp 
in threading steel pipe. 

In appearance, iron pipe is rough and has a heavy scale, while 
steel pipe has a lighter scale, underneath which the surface is 
smooth. The grain of steel pipe is fine, while that of wrought-iron 
pipe is coarse. The author of this work is located near the center 
of the iron and steel industry and has endeavored to ascertain the 
difference in value between steel and wrought-iron pipe and our 
investigation may be summed up as follows : 

Steel pipe costs less to manufacture than wrought-iron pipe ; 
it is, therefore, cheaper. With improved dies, threads may be 
cut on steel pipe as good, but not as quickly, as on wrought- 
iron pipe. When steel pipe is new it has a higher tensile strength 
than wrought iron. We are told that after a few years' use the 
reverse is the case. 

There seems to be no doubt but that wrought-iron pipe will last 
much longer than pipe made of steel, as it is less liable to cor- 
rode, the difference in longevity, under certain conditions, more 
than making up for the increased cost. 

To Ascertain Whether Pipe Is Made of Iron or Steel 

The following test is given us by an officer of an iron company : 
" Cut off a short piece of pipe — file the end smooth to oblit- 
erate the marks of the cutting tool. Suspend the piece of pipe in 
a solution of nine parts of water, three parts of sulphuric acid and 
one part muriatic acid. Place the water in a porcelain or glass 
dish, adding the sulphuric and then the muriatic acid. Suspend 
the pipe in such a manner that the end will not touch the bottom 



PIPE AND FITTINGS 



67 



of the dish. After an immersion of about two hours, remove the 
piece of pipe and wash off the acid. If the pipe is steel, the end 
will present a bright, solid, unbroken surface; if made of iron, 



\ 




bteel 



Fig. 47. — ^WVought-iron and steel pipe. 

it will show faint ridges or rings, displaying the different layers 
of iron and streaks of cinder," as shown by Fig. 47. 

Nipples 

Short pieces of standard pipe threaded at both ends are called 
" nipples " and are known commercially as " close," " short," or 
" long." 

A close nipple is one so short that in threading the ends, the 
threads join at the center of the nipple, and by the use of which 
two fittings or valves may be joined together close to each other. 
From this fact the nipple is called " close." 

The short nipple is one showing a small amount of bare pipe 
between the threads, the length varying from 1%" ^^^ %" to 
%'' nipples to 5" for nipples made from 7" to 12'' pipe. 





SHOULDER NIPPLE 



CLOSE NIPPLE 



Fig. 48. — Nipples. 



Long nipples run from 2" to 6%" "^ length, according to 
the size of pipe. Fig. 48 shows the two kinds of nipples and the 
following table gives lists of lengths and sizes. 



68 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE VIII 

Wrought-Iron Nipples 







Length ir 


1 Inches. 






Sizes. 


Close. 


Short. 


Long. 


M 


13^ 


2 


23^ 


3 


3^ 


ys 


% 


IK 


2 


23^ 


3 


3K 




1 


11^ 


2 


2,K 


3 


33^ 


H 


1^ 


U4 


2 


23^ 


3 


33^ 


-'A 


Ws 


2 


23^ 


3 


33^ 


4 


H 


n4 


2 


23^ 


3 


33-2 


4 


1 


iH 


2K 


3 


33^ 


4 


414 


1^ 


iM 


21^ 


3 


33^ 


4 


4K^ 


13^ 


2 


2>^ 


3 


33^ 


4 


43^ 


2 


2K 


3 


3M^ 


4 


43^ 


5 


21^ 


m 


3 


3^ 


4 


43^^ 


5 


3 


m 


4 


43^1^ 


5 


51^ 


6 


33^ 


3 


4 


4^ 


5 


5K 


G 


4 


3 


4 


43^ 


5 


5V. 


6 


4K 


33^ 


^Vz 


5 


SH 


6 


63^ 


5 


3^ 


4,^ 


5 


5y2 


6 


63^ 


6 


4 
4 
5 
5 


5 
5 
6 

6 


6 
6 

8 
8 








7 

8 

9 

10 



























Couplings 

Pipe is joined together by what is known as a coupling — a 
sleeve of wrought iron tapped out or threaded right hand on the 
inside. Pipe mills furnish one coupling with each full length of 
pipe. They may also be obtained tapped right and left hand, 
if desired, although it is customary when using a right and left 
"Coupling to use one made of malleable iron. Reducing couplings 



WROUGHT .IRON COUPLING 




R.&L. MALLEABLE COUPLINQ 



Fig. 49. — Couplings. 

are also made of malleable iron, reducing from one pipe size to 
another of smaller size. Fig. 49 shows the wrought-iron right- 
hand coupling and the malleable right and left hand coupling. 



PIPE AND FITTINGS 



69 



Fittings 

The fittings used in connection with steam, gas or water pipe 
are of two general kinds, viz. : those made of cast iron and those 
made of malleable iron. By fittings we mean elbows, tees, crosses, 
flanges, bushings, caps, plugs, etc. 

For heating work the cast-iron fitting is used ; for gas piping, 
the malleable-iron fitting, and for domestic water supply, the gal- 
vanized malleable-iron fitting. We shall illustrate and describe 
only the cast-iron fitting. 

Cast-iron fittings are of two kinds, viz. : those having a flat 
bead, and those having a round bead, — Fig. 50. " Straight " fit- 




ELBOW, ROUND BEAD 



ELBOW, FLAT BEAD 



Fig. 50. — ^Beaded fittings. 

tings are those having all openings tapped for the same size of 
pipe. " Reducing " fittings are those tapped for different sizes 
of pipes. Fig. 51 shows a group of flat beaded fittings. 

The terms " male " and " female " fittings are sometimes used. 
By "male" fitting we mean one with the threads on the outside; 
by " female " fitting we mean one with the threads on the inside. 

When reading or describing a tee fitting, the run is named 
first, the side opening last. If the run is tapped reducing, the 
larger tapping is read first. Thus a tee whose tappings are 3" 
X ^" X 1%" is read: three by two by one and one half inch. 

The top and side outlets of a cross are all of the same size, 
while the inlet may be the same size or larger. Thus a 2 X 1 X 1" 
cross would indicate that the bottom or inlet was %" and the top 
and side outlets 1" in size. 



Branch Tees 

A fitting used largely on coil work is known as a Branch Tee, 
frequently (but erroneously) called a Branch Header. Shown by 
Fig. 52. All branch tees are tapped right hand in the run and 



70 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

in the branches, excepting when used in making box coils, when 
the branches are tapped left hand and the back opening right 
hand. 






R.& L. ELBO« 






FLANGED UNION 



REDUCING TEE 






ECCENTRIC TEE 



ECCENTRIC TEE 






RETURN BEND, WIDE PATTERN 






CLOGE OPEN BACK OUTLET 

Fig. 51. — Types of cast-iron jQttings. 

Cast-Iron Flanges 
Cast-iron flanges are now made according to two uniform stand- 
ards. A joint committee of the Master Steam Fitters Association 



PIPE AND FITTINGS 



71 



and the American Society of Heating Engineers recommended a 
standard for a working pressure up to 125 pounds. This stand- 
ard has been adopted bj all manufacturers, who also have a stand- 




CLOSEO 
NO. 2. FOR CIRCULATION OUTLET OPEN 




INLET OPEM 

NO. 3, FOR BOX COILS 

Fig. 52. — Branch tees. 



ard of their own for pressures up to 250 pounds. The following 
gives all measurem.ents for flanges, as used on heating work. 



TABLE IX 

Schedule of Standard Flanges 



Size of Flange 


Diameter 


Num- 


Pipe Size X 


of Bolt 


ber of 


Diam. 


Circle. 


Bolts. 


2X6 


4^ 


4 


21^ X 7 


5U 


4 


3 X V4 


6 


4 


S^X SH 


7 


4 


4X9 


71/^ 


4 


41^ X 9H 


7H 


8 


5 XIO 


SH 


. 8 


6 Xll 


m 


8 


7 X12V^ 


10% 


8 


8 X13i/.> 


11% 


8 


9 X15 


13ig^ 


12 


10 X16 


14% 


12 


12 X19 


17 


12 


14 X21 


183^ 


12 


15 X22i<£ 


20 


16 


16 X23H 


21% 


16 


18 X25 


22% 


16 


20 X273^ 


25 


20 



Size of Bolts, 

Pressure 
Under 80 Lbs. 



^X2% 

>^X2 

1^X21^ 

1^X21-^ 

^X2% 

^0<3 

^8X3 

^^X3 

^X3% 

^X3i/^ 

%X3^ 

^X35/g 

MX3% 

:^x4% 

%X4% 

J^X4% 

1 X4% 

1 X4% 



Size of Bolts, 

Pressure 80 

Lbs. and Over 



:x2 



^'^X2i^ 

MX2% 

%X3 

MX3 

^X3 

MX3% 

%X33^ 

MX3>| 

^X3^ 

J^X3% 

1 X4% 

1 X4% 

1 X4% 

11^X4% 

1.^X4% 



Flange 
Thick- 
ness at 
Hub for 
Iron 
Pipe. 



1 

iM 

^H 

Wb 

iy-> 

iH 
1% 

iM 



Flange 
Thick- 
ness 
at Edge, 



r4 

% 
% 
% 
% 

1 

1^6 

1^ 

1^6 

iM 

^% 
1% 
1% 



Width 

of 
Flange 
Face. 



2 

2% 

2% 

^Yi 

m 

23^ 

2% 

2% 

3 

3 

33^ 

3^ 

3^ 

3% 

33^ 

3% 



Do not drill bolt holes on center line but symmetrically each side. 



72 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Measuring Pipe and Fittings 

The proper method of measuring pipe and fittings is by " end- 
to-center " measure, or " center to center," the former being used 
in measuring a piece or length of pipe with a fitting on one end ; 
for example, with an elbow on the end of the pipe, measure from 
end of pipe to center of the elbow, or in case of a tee, measure from 
end of pipe to center of the side outlet of the tee. 




Fig. 53. — Measuring pipe and fittings. 

In measuring center to center measurements. Fig. 53 shows 
the method employed. The illustration shows two elbows, a valve, 
a union and a tee, with dotted lines indicating method of measure- 
ment. When ordering pipe " cut to sketch " this manner of in- 
dicating measurements, no matter how crude the drawing, will 
guard against possible errors. 



CHAPTER VII 



Valves 



The method employed in blocking or stopping the flow of 
steam or hot water in the piping or in the supply to the radiating 
surfaces of a steam or water warming apparatus is the placing of 
a cock or valve at some convenient point or points on the system, 
which may be opened or closed at will. 

The early types of cocks and valves, as used in connection with 
a heating apparatus, were very crude when compared with those 
used at the present time, and there is probably no part of the heat- 
ing apparatus which has received closer attention in the way of 
improvement in manufacture, utility and appearance, than the 
steam, water and air valves. 

The valves used in shutting off or supplying steam or water 
to the radiators are customarily called Radiator Valves. These 
are of several kinds, and, as a matter of convenience in connecting 
piping to a radiator, are usually provided with a union connection. 
As a rule, radiator valves are nickel plated all over, the body of 
the valve being left rough, the other portion being finished or 
polished. 

Fig. 54 shows the regular form of steam radiator valve with 
union, and has a ground seat and composition disk, the Jenkins 
Disk being the standard. Fig. 55 shows the regular form of the 
hot-water radiator valve. This is known as a quick-opening valve 
from the fact that it is made in such a manner that a quarter 
turn of the wheel will open or close the valve. A sleeve, with 
opening in the side, is attached to the stem and fitted closely inside 
the body of the valve. To operate the valve the opening in the 
sleeve is turned in the direction of the discharge opening of the 
valve; to close the valve the opening in the sleeve is turned back 
from the discharge opening of the valve. In the early days of 
steam and hot-water heating, the valves used on hot-water radia- 

73 



74 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

tors were of practically the same design as those used on steam 
radiators. A change in the construction of the hot-water radiator 
valve was found necessary, as with the old type the water within 
the radiator ceased circulating when the valve was closed. This 




f^^^^ 



Fig. 54. — Steam radi- Fig. 55. — ^Hot-water radi- 
ator valve with union. ator valve with union. 




Fig. 56. — Union elbow. 



complete stoppage frequently resulted in a freezing of the water in 
the radiating surface. To overcome this difficulty the sleeve of 
a hot-water radiator valve is now made with a small opening 
through it, so that, though the valve be closed tight, there is still 
a slight circulation within the radiator, and this effectually pre- 
vents freezing of the water. 




Fig. 57. — Globe valve. 




Fig. 58. — Angle valve. 




Fig. 59. — Gate valve. 



Hot-water radiator valves of other patterns are manufactured 
and quite extensivel}^ used. 

As a matter of appearance and also of convenience in con- 
necting the return end of a hot-water radiator with the piping, 



VALVES 



75 



a nickel-plated brass elbow, with union connection, is used. This 
is commonly called a Union Elbow and is illustrated by Fig. 56. 

The principal valves used on piping are the Globe Valve, Fig. 
57, the Angle Valve, Fig. 58, and the Gate Valve, Fig. 59, and 
there are many varieties of each. 

Some globe valves are made with a solid metal disk and seat ; 
others have a seat made of soft metal, while some are provided 
with a composition disk of the Jenkins type, or similar. The 
diaphragm of a globe valve forms an obstruction in the valve, as 
will be noticed by referring to Fig. 60, which illustrates the in- 
terior of the valve. Consequently it is well to use this valve only 
on a vertical pipe, unless so set that the stem of the valve is hori- 
zontal. 

The angle valve is used on the piping in place of an elbow 



c 



~j 




c 



1 



, 




ml 





Fig. 60. — Interior of globe valve. 



Fig, 61. — Interior of gate vah'e. 



when change of direction is desired and it is found convenient to 
place the valve at this point. 

The gate valve (known also as the straightway valve) has 
superseded the globe and angle types of valves on nearly all work, 
as it has so many important advantages in comparison. It should 
always be made use of on hot-water piping, owing to the fact that, 
when open, there is nothing to prevent the free flow of water 
through the valve. See illustration, Fig. 61. 

Extra large globe and gate valves are frequently provided with 
a yoke or saddle, as shown by Figs. 62 and 63. 

We have still another form of valve, known as the Cross Valve, 
which, in construction, is quite similar to the angle valve, with 
the exception, however, that it has two discharge openings instead 



76 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

of a single one. The cross valve is a convenient one to use when 
it is desired to discharge in opposite directions. 

All of the above valves, shown in Fig. 57 to Fig. 63, inclusive, 
may be had in the larger sizes with flanges for bolting to com- 
panion flanges on the piping. 




SID ttll. 



,rn\ rm [m 




Fig. 62. — Globe valve with yoke. 



Fig. 63. — Gate valve with yoke. 



When it is desired that the flow through a pipe should be in 
one direction only, the result is secured by the use of a form of 
valve, known as a Check Valve. It takes its name from the fact 
that it checks the reverse flow of steam or water in the pipe. These 
valves are of three varieties, the horizontal check, the vertical check 
and the angle check. The common type of check valve is what 
is known as the Swinging Check Valve, and is illustrated by Fig. 





Fig. 64. — Swing check valve. 



Fig. 65. — Interior of swing check valve. 



64 and Fig. 65, the views showing the exterior and interior of the 
valve. 

There are other types of valves manufactured for special pur- 
poses, but those as above described and illustrated are those gen- 
erally used by tiie heating contractor. 



VALVES 



77 



Air Valves 

Doubtless no portion of a heating apparatus has received more 
attention or has been more experimented with and improved than 
has the air valve. In all heating apparatus it is necessary to pro- 
vide a means of escape for the air in the system, piping or radia- 
tors, and this is accomplished by the use of an air valve. The 
simplest form of an air valve is the compression valve. Fig. 66 




Fig. 66. — ^Wood wheel compression air valve. 



shows the common type of a wood-wheel compression air valve. 
Fig. 67 shows the type of compression air valve as used on a hot- 
water system ; this air valve is operated with a key. 

While we wish our readers to become familiar with the various 
types of air valves, it would be next to impossible to illustrate or 
describe all of them in a book of this character, as there is such 
a multiplicity of styles. In fact, nearly all manufacturers of radia- 
tor valves also make several patterns or designs of air valves. 




Fig. 67. — Lock and shield compression air valve. 

Air valves are of two general kinds : positive and automatic. 
The positive type is of the compression variety, which we have 
already described and illustrated. 

Automatic air valves are all made on the same general prin- 
ciple, although various different metals or substances are employed 
in their manufacture. Most of the automatic air valves close by 



78 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

the expansion of and open by the contraction of the metal or sub- 
stance employed in the interior of the valve. The early types of 
automatic air valves are the Breckenridge, shown by Fig. 68 and 
Fig. 69, the Baker, shown by Fig. 70 and Fig. 71. In this type 



mJ^, 



Fig. 68.— Breck- 
enridge auto- 
matic air valve. 





No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 

Fig. 70. — Baker automatic air valve. 




^ 
Jk 



Fig. 72. — Interior of Victor automatic 
air valve. 




Fig. 69.— Breck- 
enridge auto- 
matic air valve Fig. 73. — ^\lctor automatic air valve with 
with drip. wood wheel. 




Fig. 71.— Inte- 
rior of Baker 
automatic air 
valve. 



of valve the strip of brass or tube used in the interior of the 
valve, when expanded by contact with the steam, will seat or 
close the valve, which will again open when the steam pressure 
is removed. 



VALVES 



19 



As automatic valves are now manufactured, the expansion post 
or tube is made of carbon or a composite material, which will ex- 
pand more quickly than metal, as shown by Fig. 72 and Fig. 73. 
Others are made with a combination of the expansion post and a 
float, which temporarily closes the valve should there be any water 
forced through the air-valve opening of the radiator. Fig. 74 
shows an air valve of this type. 

Still another variety is that shown by Fig. 75. The float 
of this valve is sealed and contains a liquid extremely sensitive to 





Fig. 74. — ^Automatic air valve with 
expansion post and float. 



Fig. 75. — Russell automatic 
air valve. 



heat, which vaporizes at a temperature of 151° Fahr., expanding 
the ends of the float, which are corrugated, closing the valve. 

Some makes of air valves are provided with a vacuum attach- 
ment, which, working in connection with the float and expansion 
post, allows the air to escape under pressure from the steam, clos- 
ing against the steam when all air is expelled. When the steam 
pressure is removed, or the system is cooled, the attachment ef- 
fectually closes the air port preventing the return again of air 
through the valve. Thus the system is placed under a partial 
vacuum. 



80 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

One of the greatest of the troubles that the steam fitter has 
to contend with is air in the system. The radiators or radiating 
surfaces becoming air bound, the steam cannot enter, nor the hot 
water circulate. It is of importance then that the steam fitter 
should use a type of air valve which will effectually do the work 
required. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Forms of Radiating Surfaces 

One of the most interesting parts of the study of the science 
of steam and hot-water heating is to be found in following up the 
improvements in the beauty and utility of the radiating surfaces 
employed in the distribution of heat. Perhaps no part of a heat- 
ing apparatus shows so well the effort of " Yankee " ingenuity 



5K' 





Fig. 77.— The Whittier radiator. 



Fig. 76.— The Verona 
radiator, 

as the various styles of heating surfaces we to-day call radiators, 
for the radiator is of American origin. 

From the old pipe box coil, or the " pan " radiator made of 
sheet iron, to the American Radiator Company's " Verona," as 
shown by Fig. 76, or, in fact, almost any one of the present orna- 

81 



82 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



mental cast-iron radiators, is an achievement of which any person 
connected with the heating industry may be justly proud. 




Fig. 78. — The Bundy loop radiator. 




Fig. 79. — The Reed radiator. 
It is probable that the first direct radiator to be manufactured 
and sold in any quantity was the original " Bundy " radiator, 



FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 



83 



made with a cast-iron base into which were screwed short lengths 
of one-inch pipe capped at the top and covered with a cast-iron 




Fig. 80.— The Union radiator. 



Fig. 81.— The Pyro radiator. 



fretwork top. This was followed by other makes of pipe-tube 
radiators of similar design. 

The first of the cast-iron direct radiators were the " Whittier," 




Fig. 82.— The Elite radiator. 



Fig. 77, and the " Bundy " loop radiator, shown by Fig. 78. 
These radiators were placed on the market about the year 1873 or 
1874, the former by the H. B. Smith Co. and the latter bv the 



84 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



A. A. Griffing Iron Co. Improvements in design and manufac- 
ture followed almost immediately, the H. B. Smith Co. bringing 
out the " Reed " radiator, Fig. 79, and still later the " Union," 
shown by Fig. 80. The A. A. Griffing Iron Co. followed the 
"Bundy" with the " Pyro," Fig. 81 (1876), and the "Elite," 
Fig. 82 (1877). The Exeter Machine Co., of Exeter, N. H., were 
early in the field with the " Exeter," a cast-iron radiator of double- 
tube construction. 




Fig. 83.— The Gold Pin indirect radiator. 

Of the cast-iron indirect radiators the " Gold " pin radiator. 
Fig. 83, was the first, the original being manufactured as early as 
1862, and is no doubt the oldest of the cast-iron radiators in any 
form used for heating. The illustration shows the improved style 
which, however, is quite similar to the original. 

The " Bundy Climax," Fig. 8-i, is another type of the early 
indirect radiators. 




Fig. 84. — The Bundy Climax indirect radiator. 

Radiators may now be obtained in numerous heights and widths 
to fill any desired space and in a multitude of designs of orna- 
mentation, which when properly decorated become a thing of 
beauty as compared with the ugly looking box coil. Illustrative 
of this we show a low-down window radiator, Fig. 85, of such a 
height that a seat may be built over it, thus making not only a 
warm and comfortable w^indow seat, but adding also largely to 
the beauty of the room. 



FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 



85 



Pipe coils in residence heating have been almost entirely su- 
perseded by what is known as the Wall Radiator, Fig. 86. This 




Fig. 85. — Window radiator. 



type of radiator is largely used in narrow halls, bath rooms, or 
in fact, any place where there is an abundance of wall space and 




Fig. 86.— Wall radiator. 



but little floor space, and while not so effective as a pipe coil, is 
much more effective than the regular type of radiator. 



86 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Cast-iron radiators, direct and indirect, and direct-indirect, are 
now manufactured by many concerns, the largest of which is the 
American Radiator Company, originally formed by the merging 
of the Pierce Company, of Buffalo, and the Detroit and Perfection 
Radiator Companies, of Detroit. The extremely large output of 
this concern, together with the other manufacturers of radiators, 
bears witness to the great popularity of steam and hot-water heat- 
ing in this country. 

Pipe Coils 

Pipe coils are still used largely on factory or other work where 
their appearance is not objectionable. There are several styles 
of pipe coils as generally used. Fig. 87 illustrates the Miter Coil 




U^ 



IM 



a 



Q 




BRANCH TEE- MITRE COIL 

Fig. 87. — Mitre pipe coil. 

made with branch tees and right and left elbows. The position 
of the air valve, as shown at A, is for hot water. If for steam, the 
coil should be vented at end marked B and the air valve should be 
placed on the branch tee just above the lowest pipe of the coil. 
In building all coils used for steam, expansion must be provided 
for, and the angles in this style of coil formed by the right and 
left elbows provide for the expansion. It should always be used 
on walls at the position shown in the illustration, with the miter 
end up, and it may also be used as a ceiling coil. 

Fig. 88 shows the Corner Coil. This coil as shown and vented 
is for hot water, but may also be used for steam. 

- The Return Bend Coil, Fig. 89, is not so good for steam 



FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 



87 



Feed 



Comer Coil 



Fig. 88. — Corner pine coil 





Return Bend Coil 



<- Return 



Fig. 89. — Return bend pipe coil. 




.tPETURN RETURN BRANCH TEE COIL 

Fig. 90. — Return branch tee pipe coil. 



88 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

as either of those already mentioned, as the steam must travel 
through the entire coil in a single pipe. When used for steam it 
should be .vented at B ; when used for hot water it should be vented 
at A. 

Fig. 90 illustrates the Return Branch Tee Coil. Where the 
length of wall space is limited, this is a very compact type of coil 



Standing 
Wall Coll 



y<L-K-y<i-yc-X^^K^K-^ 



^ 



ic^cx^><r 



X 



J^ 



Feed 



Fig. 91. — Upright coil pipe. 



Retur 



to use. It is made with one set of right hand elbows, the other set 
being right and left hand elbows. When used for hot water, vent 
as shown at A; when used for steam, vent at end marked B, but 
place vent lower down on the coil, as recommended for coil shown 
by Fig. 87. 



FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 



89 



A style of coil used for hot water is shown by Fig. 91. Do 
not use a coil of this character for steam, as suitable provision is 
not made for expansion and trouble would ensue. 

To those who have had no very great experience in building coils 
it may not be amiss to say a few words regarding coil building. 
There are many methods of procedure, any one of which when 
the details are properly worked out will result in a neat and well- 
proportioned coil. 

We will take the miter coil for illustration, and our method 
is as follows : Determine the center to center measurements of the 
openings of the branch tees to be used and with an ordinary chalked 



< \ > - / I N^^ I ^^ I V . 




Fig. 92. — Diagram for coil making. 



line snap as many chalk lines upon the shop floor as there are 
openings in the branch tees to be used, making the distance be- 
tween the lines the center to center measurement of the openings 
in the branch tees. Calling these the horizontal lines, make at 
one end the same number of vertical lines the same distance apart. 
Determine the length and height of coil according to the space to 
be used, and then lay the branch tees and R. and L. elbows on the 
marks as shown by Fig. 92. It is well to have the left hand thread 
of the elbow looking toward the short or expansion end of the coil. 
Accurate measurements for the pipes may now be taken. The 
line A is the longest pipe of the coil. The line B is the longest 
of the upright or expansion pipes. To make a symmetrical and 



90 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

neat appearing coil the shortest upright pipe C should be in 
length but one third that of D, the shortest horizontal pipe. 

Cut right hand threads on each end of the long pipes and a 
right hand thread on one end of the short pipes and a left hand 
thread on the other end. Make the right hand side of the elbows 
on one end of the long pipes and make the other end of the pipe 
into one of the branch tees, with the elbows in proper position to 
receive the short end of the coil. 



'Q 



Fig, 93. — Coil partially completed. 

This portion of the coil now looks as shown b}^ i^ig- 93. Next 
begin with the pipe marked C on Fig. 92 and make this up 
in the usual manner of making right and left hand connec- 
tions, following with the next shortest pipe and so on until coil 
is completed. While yet on the shop floor, see that the alignment 
of the pipes is perfect. If not, make it so, w^hen the coil is ready 
to hang in position. 

HOOK PLATE 

RING PLATE CO!L STANDS 

Fig. 94. — Hook plates and coil stands. 

The same general method of laying out measurements is used 
in making all styles of coils. Wall coils are held in place by hook 
plates fastened singly or in groups, as shown by Fig. 94. Ceil- 
ing coils are hung or suspended by different forms of hangers so 
arranged as to give the proper pitch or drip to the coil and to 
allow of expansion and contraction. 



EXPANSION PLATE 




CHAPTER IX 
Locating Radiating Surfaces 

The proper location of the radiator, whether direct, indirect, 
or direct-indirect, has much to do with the success of a heating 
plant. 

Direct radiators should be located on outside walls or under the 
windows of the most exposed parts of a building. Indirect radia- 




FiG. 95. — Xiocating radiators and registers. 

tors, or more properly speaking, the register openings from in- 
direct radiators, should be located on the warmer or less exposed 
side of the room. With direct-indirect radiators it is w^ll, if pos- 
sible, to place them under windows. To "illustrate this we show 

91 



92 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



by Fig. 95 a room with two walls exposed. The dotted line divid- 
ing the room cornerwise shows the warm and cold or exposed parts 
of the room. If heated by a direct radiator, it should be located 
in either of the positions shown, and if heated by indirect radiation 
the register should be located in the floor or wall at or near either 
position shown on the illustration. 

When called upon to place and box an indirect radiator the 
steam fitter frequently becomes confused. As an aid to the proper 
hanging and boxing of indirects we shall illustrate and describe 
the usual methods followed. 

Fig. 96 shows a method of installing an indirect where the hot- 
air flue and register are placed in the wall. Figs. 97 and 98 show 




Fig. 96. — Indirect radiator — register in wall, 

two methods of installing indirect radiators when floor registers are 
used. The casing or boxing should fit snugly against the radiator 
sections in order that the air will pass through the radiator and 
not around it, and the cold-air supply or duct should always be 
provided with a damper. It is well to take the hot-air duct from 
the boxing at the end opposite to that where the cold air enters 
in order that the air will travel as great a distance through the 
radiator sections as possible. 

A number of sections of indirect radiation when nippled or 
bolted together are usually referred to as a " stack " of indirect 



LOCATING RADIATING SURFACES 



93 



radiation, or as an " indirect stack." The space between the top 
of a stack and the casing should be from eight, to ten inches and 
the space between the bottom of the stack and the lower side of the 
casing should be six or eight inches. 








m 



Stack' 



Fresh. Air 



Fig. 97. — ^Indirect radiator — register in floor. 



The hot-air supply or area of the hot-air duct should be, for 
hot water, 2 sq. in. of area, or for steam 1% sq. in. of area for 
each sq. ft. of radiation in the stack. As a general rule, the cold- 



^n^Y-r^p^ 



rri')K 



Register 



X 




Return 



Fig. 98. — ^Indirect radiator — ^register in floor. 



94 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

air supply or area of the cold-air duct should be from two thirds 
(66|^) to three fourths {15fc) of the area of the hot-air flue. Cir- 
cumstances vary these figures somewhat, but the above represents 
a fair average. The following table gives the proper sizes of 
hot and cold air ducts and sizes of registers for both steam and 
hot-water indirect heating under ordinary conditions. 

TABLE X 

Indirect Work. — Sizes of Cold and Hot Air Ducts and Registers — 
For First Floor 



INDIRECT HOT WATER 


INDIRECT STEAM 


Sq. ft. of 
Heating 
Surface. 


Sq. in. 

Cold-air 

Duct. 


Sq. in. 

Hot-air 

Duct. 


Size of 
Register. 


Sq. ft. of 
Heating 
Surface. 


Sq. in. 

Cold-air 

Duct. 


Sq. in. 
Hot-air 
Duct. 


Size of 
Register. 


26 
52 

78 
104 
130 
156 
182 
j 208 
234 
260 
286 
312 


36 
54 

72 
96 
108 
126 
144 
162 
180 
198 
216 
234 


48 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
264 
288 
312 


8X12 
9X12 
10X14 
12X15 
12X19 
14X22 
14X24 
16X20 
16X24 
20X20 
20X24 
20X24 


13 

26 

39 

52 

65 

78 

91 

104 

117 

130 

143 

156 


36 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

198 

216 

234 


48 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
264 
288 
312 


8X12 
9X12 
10X14 
12X15 
12X19 
14X22 
14X24 
20X20 
20X24 
20X24 
24X24 
24X24 



Note, — Registers and ho;:-air ducts to upper floors should be from 25 to 30 per 
cent, smaller than for first floor as given above. 



It is well to be generous in the size of flues, as if properly 
dampered they may be reduced at any time as desired. 

There are two good methods in vogue of hanging a stack of 
indirect radiation. Fig. 99 shows one method, — that of eye bolts 
screwed into the joists, suspending a cross bar of pipe on which 
the stack rests. Fig. 100 shows another method and one which 
we favor, owing to the fact that the weight of the radiator is dis- 
tributed across several joists. Heavy stacks suspended on a pair 
of supports or hangers in this manner will not weaken or strain 
the flooring as much as Avhen the former method is employed. 

Casings may be made of wood lined with tin or of sheet iron, 
as may be desired. A casing of galvanized iron with joints seamed 



LOCATING RADIATING SURFACES 



95 



or bolted together is without doubt the best method to use, as it 
not only presents a neat appearance, but is the most durable. 
Fig. 101 shows the method of setting a direct-indirect radiator 




Fig. 99. — Method of supporting indirect stack. 





Fig. 100.— Another method of supporting 
indirect stack. 



Fig. 101.— Method of setting 
direct-indirect radiator. 



and while there are several modifications of this style, the principle 
for the setting of all direct-indirects is the same. 

The wall boxes, Fig. 102, are of standard size, conforming to 
brick measurements and are furnished by all manufacturers of ra- 




Fig. 102. — Wall box for direct-indirect radiator. 

diators. The radiator itself is of the ordinary direct pattern. It 
is fitted with and rests on a box base. . This base is provided with 
a damper and is connected to the cold-air wall box by a boxing 



96 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



made of galvanized iron or tin. Fig. 103 shows a base of this kind. 
By closing the damper to the cold-air duct and opening the damper 
in the box base, the radiator may be used as a direct radiator. This 




Fig. 103. — Box base for direct-indirect radiator. 

is of importance in connection with the heating of a cold room 
or when ventilation is not necessary. 

The " flue " type of radiator is the best design for direct-in- 
direct, owing to the length of air travel through the flues between 

II 




Fig. 104. — Flue type of direct-indirect radiator. 

the sections. Fig. 104 shows a section of a flue radiator. By refer- 
ence to the following chapter our readers will learn why we believe 
a radiator of this type is best adapted for work of this character. 



CHAPTER X 

Estimating Radiation 

Having considered the various forms of radiating surfaces 
and their proper location, we have now reached that part of the 
work which the steam fitter frequently finds confusing, viz. : the 
estimating of radiation. This requires careful thought and study 
on the part of the steam fitter, as no two jobs of heating are alike, 
excepting, of course, there be two buildings erected from the same 
plans ; therefore, each j ob or contract for heating must be consid- 
ered separately and the radiation estimated accordingly. 

As a rule, all radiation is first estimated as direct, that is to say, 
the amount of direct radiation necessary to do the work required, 
and certain percentages are added if the radiation or any por- 
tion of it is to be direct-indirect or indirect. 

Many good rules are in vogue for estimating, any one of which 
will give proper results if applied with good judgment, but just 
as there are exceptions to all other rules, so that it is in estimating 
radiation. To use good judgment it is necessary that we should 
understand something of the cooling surfaces in a room or build- 
ing, the action of the heat from a radiator upon the air in a room 
and the heat loss from a radiator under certain varying con- 
ditions. 

The principal cooling surfaces of a room are the exposed or 
exterior walls and the glass surface (windows) and outside doors. 
A room with two sides exposed, for instance, a corner room, will 
require more radiation than an intermediate room with but one 
wall exposed, while a room having two windows and an outside 
door will require correspondingly more radiation than a room 
with but one window. Just how much more is determined by 
rule. 

Again, if there be no objects such as trees or adjacent buildings 
to protect any one of the sides of a house, the north, west, or 

97 



98 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

northwest rooms will need more radiating surface than the rooms 
on the south, east, or southeast sides of the building. The rea- 
son for this is readily seen, as practically all the chilly winter 
winds come from the north, west, or northwest. 

A frame building without weather board or paper used in its 
construction requires more radiation than one with this additional 
protection, and either one requires more than a brick or stone 
building. 




Fig. 105. — Circulation of air by direct radiator. 



As to the action of the heat from a radiator upon the air of 
the room, the radiator, if direct, should be placed in the coldest 
place in the room, as stated in the preceding chapter, for the rea- 
son that it meets and warms the cold air entering through the out- 
side walls and windows, tempers and heats it, causing it to cir- 
culate or turn in the room, thus warming all portions of the room 
to a uniform temperature. 

Fig. 105 shows the action of a direct radiator upon the air 



ESTIMATING RADIATION 



99 



in a room, the arrows indicating the direction of the air currents. 
We note that the heated air first rises to the ceihng where the air 
of the room is Hghter than below, then passes to an inside wall, 
where it is forced downward and drawn across the floor again 
to the radiator, where it receives the same treatment as before, 
the rapidity of the circulation depending upon the volume of heat 
from the radiator. Note also the downward draught of the cold air 
entering at the window, and how it is prevented from entering the 




Screen 



Fig. 106. — Circulation of air by indirect radiator. 

body of the room. Should the radiator be placed along an outside 
wall between two windows, or in a corner, the cold air entering 
through the windows would pass downward to the floor and then be 
drawn along the floor to the radiator. 

Heat, or more properly, heated air, from an indirect radiator 
passes directly to the ceiling, then across to the windows or out- 
side wall where, as it cools, it settles to the floor and is draAvn 
across the floor again to the register as shown by Fig. 106. It 

LOfG. 



100 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

is for this reason that churches or rooms with very high ceil- 
ings are very difficult to heat with indirect radiation without the 
assistance of some direct radiators to aid in turning the air of 
the room. 

Where direct-indirect radiation is placed the action upon the 
air in the room is similar to that of the direct radiator as shown 
by Fig. 105. 

Rules for Estimating Radiation 

Some one has aptly said, " We gain knowledge and profit by the 
mistakes of others," and truly this is exemplified in figuring radia- 
tion. Many years ago the writer was taught to estimate radiation 
by the following rule : 

For Steam 

To ascertain the amount of radiation required find the cubical 
contents and divide the result by the following factors • 

Living rooms, ordinary exposure 50 

Living rooms, extraordinary exposure 40 

Bath and dressing rooms 40 

Staircase halls 50— 70 

Sleeping rooms 55- 70 

School rooms 60— 80 

Churches, theaters, halls, etc 65-100 

Factories 75-150 

For Hot Water 

Add one third to the result obtained for steam. 

For direct-indirect, add twenty-five per cent, and for indirect, 
add fifty per cent. 

It will readily be seen that the results obtained by this old 
rule, which is now almost entirely obsolete, were anything but cor- 
rect, and unless the person using the rule was thoroughly con- 
versant as to the requirements of certain rooms, or was endowed with 
extraordinary good judgment, many errors would result. Yet 
many heating contractors are to-day using this rule or some other 
" rule of thumb " just as antiquated. 



ESTIMATING RADIATION 101 

Some Dependable Rules 

Baldwin's : " Divide the difference in temperature between that 
at which the room is to be kept and the coldest outside atmosphere, 
by the difference between the temperature of the steam in the radia- 
tor and that at which you wish to keep the room and the product 
will be the square feet of radiating surface to be allowed for each 
square foot of equivalent glass surface." (Mr. Baldwin estimates 
that a square foot of glass and a square yard of ordinary outside 
wall have about the same cooling value.) 

As an example of this, take outside temperature at zero and 
the rule results as follows : 



Temperature desired in room 70° 

Outside temperature (zero) 0^ 



1° 
Difference 70° 



Again: Temperature of steam in radiator 212° minus 70° 
(temperature of room) equals 142° ; 142 divided by 70 equals 
0.493, or about one half a square foot of radiation for each 
square foot of glass or its equivalent (one square yard of out- 
side wall). 

The above covers only the exposure of the room and is for a 
well-built building. Loose windows, poor construction, etc., must 
be taken into consideration and the proper allowances made. 

Another rule (and the one used by the author for quick fig- 
uring) is that of Mills, and briefly stated, is as follows: 

To find the amount of radiation required to heat a room with 
low-pressure steam to 70° Fahr. when the outside temperature is at 
0° Fahr., allow one square foot of radiation for each 200 cubic 
feet of contents, one square foot of radiation for each 20 square 
feet of outside wall surface, and one square foot of radiation for 
each 2 square feet of glass surface (counting outside doors as 
glass surface). The producl of these results will be the amount 
of radiation required. 

For hot water add 60 per cent to this result. 

As an example consider a room 12' X 15' in size, having a 
10 ft. ceiling. The cubical contents, found by multiplying 
12 X 15 X 10, equals 1,800 cu. ft. One 12 ft. side is exposed wall: 



102 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

12 X 10 = 120 sq. ft. of exposed wall surface. The room has two 
windows 3 X 6' : 3 X 6 = 18 X 2 = 36 sq. ft. of glass surface. 



,800-- 


-200 = 


9 


120- 


-20 = 


6 


36-^ 


- 2 — 


18 



Total 33 sq. ft. radiation. 

For hot water: 33 X 60fo = 19.8 + 33 = 52.8 sq. ft. of ra- 
diation required. 

It is the custom of the author to add 25^ to the amount of 
direct for direct-indirect, either steam or hot water, and for in- 
direct to add 50^ for steam and 60^ for hot water. 

While there are many rules for estimating and some of them 
possibly a little more accurate than the above, we consider either 
Baldwin's or Mills's rule to be the simplest and best, as they are 
free from complicated methods not readily understood. 

The author has found that it was excellent practice to increase 
the radiation somewhat on the north and west sides of a building, 
also that when a building is heated intermittently (as is the case^ 
with some churches, halls, etc.) the radiation should be increased 
25^ over and above the normal amount required should the build- 
ing be heated continuously. 

It is well to become familiar with two or more rules, using one 
as a check upon the other. 



CHAPTER XI 
Steam-Heating Apparatus 

In one of the early chapters of this book we gave a brief his- 
tory of steam heating and its introduction in this country. We shall 
now take up the many various systems and consider the advantages 
or disadvantages of each, showing also the various styles of piping. 

The early method of heating by steam was with the two-pipe 
system, small sizes of pipe being used and a high pressure of steam 
maintained. As our knowledge of steam heating- increased, larger 
piping and a lower pressure were made use of. 

At the present time there are many buildings, such as factories 
and offices, or commercial buildings, where a medium or compara- 
tively high pressure is used, the steam being generated at high 
pressure by the boilers and reduced for use in the heating system. 
On work of this character the water of condensation is returned to 
the boiler by return steam traps or by a pump. 

For the heating of residences and small buildings, we use what 
is called a " gravity system," the pressure of steam being from one 
to five pounds, the condensed steam returning to boiler by its own 
gravity. The boiler is located below the level of all mains and 
radiators. It is of this latter method that we shall treat, illustrat- 
ing and explaining each system. 

Low-pressure gravity steam heating may be divided into sev- 
eral systems or styles of construction, as follows : 

(a) The one-pipe system, where the radiators are connected by 
a single pipe which is used both as flow and return. 

(b) The two-pipe system, where each radiator has a separate 
flow and return pipe. This system also necessitates a double sys- 
tem of cellar piping. 

These two meth' Is may be subdivided into several styles or 
systems, viz. : 

103 



104 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

(a) The Circuit System. 

(b) The Divided Circuit System. 

(c) The One-pipe System with Dry Returns. 

(d) The Overhead System. 

Fig. 107 illustrates the regular circuit system. The steam main 
rises from the boiler as high as possible, or as high as circum- 




FiG. 107. — Circuit system of steam heating. 



stances or height of basement will permit. This is the high point 
of the system, so far as the steam main is concerned. From this 
point the main makes a circuit of the building, as shown by illus- 
tration. This circuit is made at a distance of from two to six feet 



STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 



105 



from basement wall (circumstances governing this distance), the 
main pitching- downward from the boiler from 1/2'' to V in each 
ten feet of length. In making the circuit of the basement, the 
main is carried to a point as near to the boiler as is possible. At 
this point a reducing elbow is placed on the end of the main, re- 
ducing one or two sizes. Connection is then made with return 
opening of boiler. This reducing elbow should be tapped for an 
air vent and an automatic air vent be placed on the same. 

As the main acts as a steam reservoir to supply the various 
radiators, it is well to free it of all air, in order that the steam may 
be supplied to all radiators at the same time, thus allowing them to 




Fig. 108. — Branching from main with 45° elbow. 



heat uniformly. The automatic air vent placed on the elbow 
at the end of the main accomplishes this purpose. 

The various branches should be taken from the main by the use 
of a nipple and a 45-degree elbow, as shown by Fig. 108. As a 
general rule, the branches should be one size larger than the vertical 
pipe or " spud " supplying the radiator valve, or one size larger 
than the risers which they feed. 

Most of the old-time steam fitters, as well as many fitters of the 
present day, make a practice of taking the connection for branch 
from the top of the main. This practice is wrong, as the con- 
densation returning through the branch to the main drops directly 
into the steam supply, saturating and cooling it. Fig. 109 illus- 



106 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

trates this. We may add, for example, that a main where all the 
branches are taken off with the use of 45-degree elbows, as shown 
by Fig. 108, will do 25^ more work, and prove 25^ more economi- 
cal than if taken off main from the top. 

Fig. 108 also shows how the water of condensation joins that in 
the main without interference with the steam, when 45-degree el- 
bows are used. 

The main on a circuit job of heating should not be reduced in 
size, but should be carried full size to point where air vent is used. 
The principal reason for this is that it is constantly being reduced 




Fig. 109. — Branching from main with 90° elbow, 

in area by the water of condensation from the various radiators 
entering it, so that its area at the end may not be more than one 
half the full capacity of the pipe. 

The branches should have a pitch upward from main of at least 
1'' in 5 feet of length, and a greater pitch is desirable. Special 
elbows, called pitch elbows, for use on end of branch, in order to 
throw the vertical spud or riser straight, may be purchased from 
those who deal in steam-fitting supplies. 

Where the circuit system can be used to advantage, we would 
recommend it on account of its utility and good appearance. For 



STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 



lOT 



-an L-shaped building, it is necessary to take a separate loop from 
the main circuit, as shown by Fig. 110; otherwise the work is 
similar to the single loop. 




Fig. 110. — Circuit system of steam heating, with loop. 



The Divided Circuit System 

When installing a steam-heating apparatus in a long building 
where the boiler is located near the center of the basement, and 
on either side of the same, we may use what is called the Divided 



108 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Circuit System, as illustrated by Fig. 111. The convenience of 
installing this system can be readily seen from the illustration. In 
installing this system and also the Single Circuit, it is well to keep 
the end of mains at least 14" above the water line of the boiler. 
With the Divided Circuit System it is necessary that an auto- 
matic air vent be placed on the end of each loop. The returns 
should be connected together below the water line of the boiler, as 
shown by illustration. 

The One-pipe System — Dry Returns 

When it is necessary to install steam heat in a long, narrow 
building, such as one side of a double house, where the radiators 
are all placed along the outside wall, this system, as illustrated by 
Fig. 112, is particularly adaptable. The flow pipes, as shown, 
pitch downward from the boiler to end of main. On the end of 
main a reducing elbow is placed. Into this elbow is connected a 
close nipple with a 90-degree elbow on the end of same, and from 
this elbow the return is taken dry to the boiler, as shown. These 
elbows should be " thrown " or turned upward until the top of the 
return is level with the bottom of the main, in order to gain head 
room. A short piece of pipe, with crooked thread on one end, 
should be used in starting the return ; the longer pipe should be 
attached to this piece with an ordinary coupling. In this manner 
the return may be taken to boiler almost directly under and par- 
allel to the main, making a good appearing and workmanlike job. 

At a point near the boiler, elbows should be placed on end of 
returns and drop made to return opening of boiler. These elbows 
should be tapped for air vent and automatic air Agents placed on 
same. 

Note the coil shown on illustration. All pipe coils should be 
connected " two pipe " with return connected below the water line 
of the boiler. 

The Overhead System 

The Overhead System of steam heating is necessarily a combina- 
tion of the one and two pipe systems and it may have either a 
wet or a dry return, although the wet return is by far preferable. 
We illustrate by Fig. 113 an adaptation of the overhead system 



STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 



109 




110 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 







u 

? 



STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 



111 



and show the many different methods by which the radiators may 
be connected. 




The riser or risers (there may be more than one) rise directly 
to the top floor or attic of the building and here branch in the 
several directions necessary to feed the various drop risers sup- 
plying the radiators. The branches connecting these risers are 



112 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 



113 



taken from the side of the main. Should it be necessary to run the 
main any considerable distance from the boiler in the basement be- 
fore rising to top of building, it is well to " heel drip " the elbow 
at bottom of the riser and connect the drip with the wet return. 

At the left of the illustration in the basement we show one 
method of creating a false water line, in order that the returns 
from risers in an unexcavated portion of the basement may be con- 
nected into a wet return. We shall in a later chapter illustrate and 
describe the false water line more fully. 

At the right of the illustration we show in the basement a 
wall radiator for heating a basement room, which is warmed par- 
tially by steam, above the water line of the boiler, and partially 
by the water of condensation, below the water line of the boiler and 
is connected in such a manner, without valves, that it might be 
designated as a cooling coil. The illustration shown is composed 
of three sections of wall radiation, although a pipe coil could be 
used in the same manner. 



The Two-pipe System 

Illustrated by Fig. 114 we show the Two-pipe System of steam 
heating. This system has been discarded generally on ordinary 
work, being succeeded by the One-pipe System, although it still 
has some adherents among the fitters. 

Smaller piping for both flow and returns and flow and return 
risers is used for this system than for either of those already de- 
scribed. The cost of installation will, however, exceed that of either 
style of the single-pipe systems. It is customary when using the 



s 



o 



r 1 




r 1 


t-i 





Fig. 115. — Eccentric fittings — the right method. 

two-pipe system, to reduce the size of the main as the various 
radiators are taken off. We would caution against reducing the 
main too rapidly, as so much friction would result that it would 
be necessary to carry a considerable pressure at the boiler in order 
to supply the radiators at the far end of the system and this 



114 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

would thereby destroy the economical features of the job. When- 
ever the main is reduced, a tee should be used and a drip con- 
nected to return, or, what is better, eccentric fittings should be used, 



Jtsst. 



Fig. 116. — Common fittings — the wrong method. 

as shown by Fig. 115. Unless this course is pursued, the water of 
condensation will lodge in the main (see Fig. 116) and cause 
" water hammer " or pounding in the piping. 



Advantages of Steam Heating 

The advantages of steam heating over other systems, not consid- 
ering the patented vacuum or vapor systems, are: (1) there is less 
liability of damage by frost; (2) smaller radiators and piping are 
used ; (3) rooms are more quickly warmed and cooled, and (4) where 
a system of ventilation is used, the air is more quickly purified. 

By the use of automatic damper regulators, safety valves, etc., 
the danger of explosion has been practically eliminated, so that 
now steam may be used wdth as great a degree of safety as any 
other system. 

TABLE XI 
Sizes of Steam Mains 



ONE-PIPE SYSTEM. 


TWO-PIPE 


SYSTEM. 


Size of 
Main. 




Size of Steam Main. 




Radiation Supplied. 




Radiation Supplied. 


Flow. 


Return. 


IW 


125 to 250 sq. ft. 


114" 


Wa" 


250 to 400 sq. ft. 


2" 


250 to 400 " " 


r 


V-V' 


400 to 650 " " 


21^" 


400 to 650 " " 


^W 


r 


650 to 900 " " 


S" 


650 to 900 " " 


3// 


V^A" 


900 to 1,200 " " 


3^" 


900 to 1.200 " " 


33^" 


?," 


1,200 to 1.600 " " 


4" 


1,200 to 1,600 " " 


4" 


3" 


1,600 to 2,000 " " 


41^" 


1,600 to 2,000 " " 


43-^'' 


3K" 


2,000 to 2,500 " " 


5" 


2,000 to 2,500 " " 


5" 


^" 


2,500 to 3..500 " " 


6'^ 


2,500 to 3,500 " " 


6'' 


4H" 


3,500 to 5.000 " " 


r 


3,500 to 5,000 " ' 


r 


^" 


5,000 to 6.500 " " 


8" 


5,000 to 6,500 " " 


8'' 


Q" 


6,500 to 8,000 " " 



CHAPTER XII 
Exhaust Steam Heating 

Whii.e exhaust steam for many years has been used for heat- 
ing factories, its use in heating office and pubhc buildings, stores, 
etc., may be said to cover a period of probably the past ten years. 
We mean by this its general use, as in the larger cities it has been 
more or less employed for the past score of years. 

Of later years numerous improvements have been made in utiliz- 
ing and controlling the steam, both live and exhaust, and the heat- 
ing contractor or engineer who does not familiarize himself with 
these new and improved methods is neglecting a very important 
part of his business education. 

We now desire to treat only of the value and utility of using 
the exhaust from the engine and the ordinary method of applying 
the same for heating purposes. The improved methods will be 
found illustrated and described in a later chapter of this book. 

Value of Exhaust Steam 

It is a lamentable fact that in many factories and business build- 
ings a very great percentage of the steam from the engines is al- 
lowed to exhaust into the outside atmosphere. We think we are 
perfectly safe in saying that over 50^ of the steam produced by 
the boilers is thus wasted. Could the value of this waste be brought 
directly and forcibly to the attention of the owners, in such a man- 
ner as to be thoroughly understood by them, without doubt they 
would lose no time in taking such steps as would be necessary to 
stop the loss. The amount of steam used by the average non- 
condensing engine is but about from 7%^ to 10^ of the amount 
produced by the boiler; in other words, the steam exhausted from 
the engine has practically 90^ of its original energy and value. 
Sliould the exhaust be employed in supplying a feed-water heater, 

115 



116 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

five per cent more should be deducted, leaving eighty-five per cent 
of the original amount available for heating purposes or other uses. 

Many concerns do not make a practice of heating their feed 
water, although some of them discharge their exhaust into an open 
well or tank and thus warm the water supply that is pumped to the 
boiler. 

Steam specialties such as feed-water heaters, separators, steam 
traps, etc., will usuallj^ pay for themselves by their saving in 
one or two seasons, and, when the excess steam is utilized for 
heating, the saving will equal about one half of the usual coal pile. 
When there is not a sufficient amount of exhaust steam to supply 
the heating system, the piping may be so arranged that enough 
live steam may be introduced into the heating system to make 
up the deficiency. There are many methods of arranging the 
piping and fixtures for making use of exhaust steam. We show 
one of them in the illustration, Fig. 117. 

Necessary Fixtures 

In connecting the exhaust to supply the heating system, care 
must be exercised not to increase the resistance and thus cause 
back pressure on the engine. A back pressure of from one to three 
pounds may be readily overcome by a slight increase of pressure 
at the boiler. A steam main of generous size for the heating sys- 
tem, as free from right-angle turns (elbows), or bends, as pos- 
sible, is recommended, and a back-pressure valve should be placed 
on the exhaust pipe a considerable distance from the engine. The 
engine delivers steam into the exhaust intermittently, that is, at the 
end of each stroke, the engine governor admitting only sufficient 
steam to the engine for the work required of it. It may be " run- 
ning light " with but a small proportion of the machinery in the 
factory in use. Thus the amount of exhaust steam delivered to the 
heating system may not be sufficient, in which case a supply of live 
steam is admitted to it. This steam supply is admitted at a re- 
duced pressure, hence a reducing-pressure valve is necessary on the 
live steam connection. A valve partially open or " throttled " 
may be used, but it is much better to have a reducing valve set to 
reduce to the pressure required. 



EXHAUST STEAM HEATING 



117 




118 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

In the exhaust as dehvered by the engine, there is considerable 
water, which is more or less filled with particles of lubricating oil, 
small particles of dirt and packing. This must be removed before 
the steam is admitted to the heating system ; consequently a sepa- 
tor which will separate both oil and water is placed on the exhaust 
pipe before it is connected to the heating system. A small drip 
pipe or waste should be connected from the bottom of the separator 
to a trap, which will discharge outside the building or to a sewer. 
Were it not for this separator the oil, etc., in the exhaust would 
pass through the return of the heating system to the pump or 
trap feeding the boiler. This must be guarded against. Refer- 
ence to Fig. 117 will show in general the fixtures used and method 
of connecting the same. 

The exhaust may be taken direct from the engine to a large 
closed tank, which is provided with baffle plates for separating the 
oil and other impurities from the steam. This is called a " grease 
tank " and a drip should be taken from the bottom to a trap empty- 
ing to sewer in the same manner as though taken from a separator, 
as before described. A relief pipe may be used, connecting the tank 
with back-pressure valve. This tank should be placed at the top 
of the heating system, and from it connection to heating main 
should be made. 

Different engineers have various methods of making connec- 
tions. We have found that it is well to have the heating main 
connected as high above the engine as possible. An overhead sup- 
ply or overhead system is preferable to all others. When con- 
necting valves and fixtures, it is well to make frequent and gen- 
erous use of flanges, as these will be found of great convenience 
when changing valves or making repairs. 

Heating Capacity of Exhaust Steam 

For estimating the amount of exhaust steam available from a 
certain size of engine, many rules, more or less complicated, have 
been given by various authorities. For the practical use of the 
fitter would say a safe rule is to allow from 100 to 125 feet of 
direct radiation (pipe and fittings covered, or figured as radiation) 
per H. P. of the engine. Thus a 100 H. P. engine, working to its 



EXHAUST STEAM HEATING 119 

regular capacity, should exhaust sufficient steam to heat the nec- 
essary feed-water for the boiler or boilers and have sufficient excess 
to heat 10,000 sq. ft. of direct radiation. 

Of the character of steam appliances or specialties we shall 
treat in a future chapter. 



CHAPTER XIII 
Hot-water Heating 

The growth of hot-water heating in this country, as a means 
of warming our homes, has been httle short of phenomenal. The 
personal experience of the writer, covering a little less than twenty 
years, shows that, where twenty years ago for residence heating 
there were four or five times as many steam boilers installed as 
there were hot-water heaters, at this period the great percentage 
is in favor of hot water. While we have no accurate data on the 
subject, the records of two or three manufacturers of heaters show 
a ratio of about ten or eleven to one in favor of hot water. 

Steam is, as a rule, used for heating factories, business build- 
ings, public and semipublic buildings, although for this class of 
work hot water is beginning to be more generally employed. 

There are two general systems of hot-water warming, namely^ 
" low pressure " and " high pressure." It is the former method 
which is in general use. Low-pressure hot-water heating has many 
advantages to recommend it for residence work. 

Very little attention to the apparatus is required, aside from 
coaling the heater and removing the ashes. This is of considerable 
importance, however, as the man or men of the family may fre- 
quently be compelled to absent themselves from home for extended 
periods and the care of the heating apparatus be left to inexperi- 
enced hands. 

Hot-water heat is very easily controlled and an even tempera- 
ture can be readily maintained. Regulators are now used with 
hot-water apparatus, and it is possible to so adjust these that any 
desired temperature can be maintained within the rooms. 

As to consumption of fuel, the hot-water apparatus is the most 
economical of any of the various heating systems. 

As the average hot-water apparatus works at a temperature 

ranging from 100 to 120 degrees in mild weather, and from 160 to 

120 



HOT-WATER HEATING 121 

180 degrees in cold weather, the heat from it is very mild and the at- 
mosphere is not robbed of any of its healthy qualities. Some years 
ago it was customary to maintain a temperature of from 180 to 21^ 
degrees. Experience has demonstrated that the greatest economy 
and most satisfactory heat are obtained by carrying the water at a 
much lower temperature, and the heating contractor of to-day, as 
a rule, places sufficient radiation in the building to warm the same 
with the water at the lower temperature. 

Low-pressure hot-water heating may be divided into three sys- 
tems, or methods of piping, viz. : 

(a) The regular two-pipe system. 

(b) The overhead system. 

(c) The single main or circuit style of piping. 

The Two-pipe System 

The two-pipe system is the oldest of the various styles of pip- 
ing for hot water, hence is best understood by the fitter and heating 
contractor, and is more generally used than either of the other 
systems. 

The flow pipe, or pipes, of sufficient size to feed the necessary 
amount of radiation, are carried to such a height above the heater' 
as to allow of a proper pitch of the main. On the top of this 
riser an elbow is placed and the lateral pipe or main is run with a 
pitch upward of from one half to one inch in each ten feet of length 
to the end of the system, or to the branch supplying the radiator 
farthest from the boiler. 

The general design of this system is shown by Fig. 118. We 
show several styles of radiator connections, and attention is called 
to the manner of supplying the branch at the end of the main, the 
elbow on the end being tipped to an angle of 45°, and a 45° elbow 
and nipple used in making the connection. This manner of con- 
necting the branch is a help to the circulation at this point and 
the radiator will heat better than when the connection is made with 
90° elbows. 

All tees on the mains supplying branches should be tipped to 
an angle of 45 degrees and the branch supplied by using a nipple 
and 45° elbow. Many fitters seem to think that by taking branches 



122 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



& 


^^ 


( T 


( 


) 


(, , 


) 


r- 


— ^ 


^— 


) 



k 


^ 


( 


Jli 


V. 




c, , 




c 




c^" — 




(' 


n 




( n 




) 




) 




) 




) 




H 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



123 




IM PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

out of the top they are increasing the circulation, but such is not 
the case, as every 90° elbow used on hot-water work increases the 
friction and impedes the circulation. Any " choking " of the cir- 
culation necessary to make radiators heat uniformly should be done 
by using a reducing elbow at the end of the branch. Great care 
should be taken not to reduce the size of the main too rapidly. 
Frequently the reducing in size of a short piece of pipe between 
two tees supplying branches, has " killed " the circulation beyond 
the point of reduction. 

As a better means of understanding this system we show by 
Fig. 119 a basement plan of the cellar piping of a hot-water ap- 
paratus. For convenience in illustrating we have shown branches 
taken from top of main; ^5° connections are preferable, as ex- 
plained above. Where the flow pipe is divided in order to feed- 
radiators in opposite directions, it is well to use double elbows. 
See Fig. 120. In fact, this fitting should be employed on all pip- 
ing either for steam or hot water. The tee as used " bull head " 
not only increases the friction but frequently is the means of caus- 
ing an uneven circulation in the piping supplied by it. 

TABLE XII 
Sizes of Mains — Two-pipe Hot-water System 



Size of Main. 


Radiation Supplied. 


IVn" 


125 to 175 sq. ft. 

175 to 300 " " 

300 to 475 " " 

475 to 700 " " 

700 to 1,000 " " 

1,000 to 1,400 " " 

1,400 to 1,750 " " 

1,750 to 2,200 " " 

2,200 to 3,000 " " 


2* 


9M," 


S" 


SU" 


4'' 


4i'i^" 




6'' 





There seems to be quite a difference of opinion among heating 
engineers as to the size of mains necessary for hot-water heating, 
many of them advocating much smaller piping than is given in the 
above table; that is, they increase the amount of radiation a cer- 
tain size of pipe will supply by from one third to one half of the 
amount as given above. 



HOT-WATER HEATING 125 

In an experience covering nearly a score of years the writer 
has used both large and small piping, and we find that while the 
character of the work to a great extent governs the size of pipe 
to be used, it is well to be generous in the size of piping, par- 
ticularly for the main supply pipes. For all ordinary two-pipe 




Fig. 120.— The double elbow. 

work we consider the sizes as given in the schedule conservative. 
Friction should be avoided and as the friction in a horizontal pipe 
is much greater than in a vertical pipe, the horizontal pipe must 
of necessity be larger than the vertical to accomplish the same 
service. 

The Expansion Tank 

As water heated to 180 or 212 degrees expands from one 
twenty-fourth to one thirtieth of its volume, it is necessary on 
hot-water work to make some provision for the increased volume 
of water and for this purpose we make use of a tank, which we 
<!all an " expansion tank." There are several methods of connect- 
ing this tank with the hot-water system. It should, however, in 
each instance be located at least three feet above the highest radia- 
tor on the system and the expansion pipe should be connected 
to the return pipe of the radiator. The vent pipe leading from 
the top of the tank should be carried through the roof above the 
tank, or through the side of the building into the outside atmos- 
phere. This vent pipe may also be used as the overflow; in case 
the system overflows by reason of being filled too full, the excess 
water will empty on the roof or outside the building. 

When the expansion tank is placed in the bathroom of a resi- 
dence, many fitters make a practice of carrying the overflow into 



126 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

the closet tank, while others take the pipe to a basement drain.. 
The former method is poor practice, and the latter a waste of mate- 
rial entirely unnecessary. 

By Fig. 121 we show the simplest form of connecting the ex- 
pansion tank. When this style of connection is used, the tank must, 
be located in a room which is heated, or where there is no liability 
of freezing. 





RETURN FROM 
HIGHEST 
RADIATOR, 



VENTPIpg 




FLOW AND RETURN 
CONNECTED TO HIGHEST RADIATOR 



Fig. 122. — Connecting ex- 
pansion tank — circulat- 
ing water to tank. 



Fig. 121. — Connecting expansion tank- 
common method. 



Fig. 122 shows a method of tank connection where the water is 
CTTculated to the tank or directly underneath it. In employing this 
style of connection, one pipe must be connected to the flow and 
the other to the return pipe of one of the highest radiators on the 
system. When it is necessary to place the tank in a cold room 
or an exposed place, we recommend the connection as shown by 
Fig. 123. We also recommend that nothing less than V^ pipe 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



127 



be used for the connections. With this method the water in the 
tank is circulated or warmed. Either of the latter two methods 



WATER SUPPLY 




HIGHEST RADIATOR 
ON HEATING SYSTEM 




Fig. 123. — Connecting expansion tank — circulating water in tank. 

of connection will prove of assistance in keeping air out of the 
system. 




Fig. 124. — Automatic expansion tank. 

A later style of expansion tank and one which has met with 
favor is the automatic expansion tank which operates with a ball 



128 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

cock and float. Fig. 124 shows an interior view of the tank. It 
is made of wood and has a copper hning. They are also constructed 
of steel and of a form similar in appearance to the regular style 
of tank. That illustrated has much the appearance of the regular 
closet tank and when placed in a bathroom or other occupied room 
is commendable for its neat appearance. No valves of any de- 
scription should be placed on any of the expansion-tank connec- 
tions. They are not only unnecessary, but are liable to be closed (by 
error) and the system thereby be put under pressure, with liability 
to damage by explosion. 

Water Connection 

The water connection to a hot-water heating apparatus should 
be made by connecting into the return pipe at the rear of the boiler. 
Where there is no regular water supply and it is necessary to fill 
the system by hand or with a pump, the connection must of neces- 
sity be made at the tank or the top of the system. 



Table of Expansion-tank Sizes 

The following table gives the proper size of expansion tank for 
any hot-water heating apparatus up to 6,000 sq. ft. of radiation. 



TABLE XIII 





Capacity. 


Size. 


300 sq. ft. radiation 


10 gal. 


12X20" 


500 " " 


15 " 


12X30" 


700 " " 


20 " 


14X30" 


950 " " 


26 " 


16X30" 


1,300 " " 


32 " 


16X36" 


2,000 " " 


42 " 


16X48" 


3,000 " " 


66 " 


18X60" 


5,000 " " 


82 " 


20X60" 


6,000 " " 


100 " 


22X60" 



The Overhead System 

A style of piping for hot water which, when it has been prop- 
erly erected, has met with much favor, is the so-called " overhead 
system." We do not hesitate to say that it is the best method 
of hot-water piping in use to-day, and while it is not adaptable 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



129 




130 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

to all classes of buildings, there are many, such as flat or apart- 
ment buildings, store and office buildings, hotels or factories, where 
the character of construction, manner of dividing the space into 
living rooms, offices, etc., render the overhead system particularly 
serviceable. There are many advantages to be gained by the use 
of this system, the principal one being that but one riser or drop 
pipe is necessary for supplying a line of radiators, and also that 
the circulation of the water is both positive and rapid. No air 
vents are necessary at any point on the system, as the piping 
is so arranged that all air works to the top of the system into 
the expansion tank and through this to. the atmosphere, thus 
keeping the system free from air at all times and as the removal 
of air from the heating system is one of the great troubles of 
the steam fitter, much good has been accomplished by this alone. 



MAINT 




^BRANCH 



DROP riser- 



Fig. 126. — The overhead system branch from main. 

In illustrating this system (Fig. 125) w^e show in detail some of 
the many methods of connecting the radiators and the general 
mode of piping. The main flow pipe is taken from the top of the 
heater, as with the regular two-pipe system, and run to some con- 
venient point to allow it to be run vertically to the attic or top 
floor of the building. This should be the high point of the system 
and from this point the connection to the expansion tank should 
be made. From the top of the main riser, the various branch mains 
are run. These have a drop of at least one half inch in each 
ten feet of length and from these mains the branches supplying 
the drop risers are taken. Those shown on Fig. 125 are taken 
out of the side of the main. We favor a 45° connection as shown 
by Fig. 126. The size of the drop risers depends entirely upon 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



131 



the amount of radiation fed by them. As a rule, they should be 
larger at the top than at the bottom, reducing gradually as the 
various radiators are supplied. The radiator connections from 
the risers should be smaller at the top of the building, increasing 
in size (the same size of radiators considered) toward the bottom 
of the riser. 




Fig. 127.— The O. S. distribu- 
ting fitting. 





Fig. 129. — Straightway valve 
with union. 



Fig. 128. — ^Application of O. S. distributing fitting. 



In the Jbasement the risers are connected into returns in the 
same manner as with the regular two-pipe system, these returns 
being increased in size as the various branches are connected until 
finally the water is returned to the boiler through approximately 
the same size of pipe as the main riser. 



132 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



An advantage where this system is used and one which should 
not be overlooked, is the ability to circulate the water through 



Bjsnch out of Tee- 



Main 



^ 



'a 



-Return pj^. ;[3o, — Connecting radiator on a level with heater, 

and supply heat to radiators located on the same floor as the heater, 
or even lower than it. This is by reason of the weight of the 



08=0 



r\i 



M 



y 



X 



Fig. 131. — Connectinof radiator on a level with heater. 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



133 



water or pressure on the system, there being one pound pressure 
for each two feet of height of the water in the system. We have 
shown by Fig. 125 several methods of using the ordinary tees on 
the riser from which connections to radiators are made. We also 
show on the two risers, at the right hand of the illustration, a 
special fitting (Fig. 127) known as the " O. S." fitting and we 
commend it to the use of all heating contractors as an aid to the 
reduction of friction and a quickening of the circulation, and also 
on account of the labor saved by its use. In order that it may 
be better understood, we show an enlarged riser (Fig. 128), illus- 
trating two radiators connected by the use of this fitting. 

A style of radiator valve which is particularly adaptable for 
use with this system is shown by Fig. 129. It is known as the 




Fig. 132.— Base elbow. 



" straightway " valve, and is a quick-opening valve. As its name 
indicates, it is for use on a straight pipe or connection. When 
connecting radiators on or below the level of the heater, care 
must be taken not to make a connection which will get air 
bound. If the connection is taken from one of the overhead 
return pipes, we recommend that it be done as shown by Fig. 
130. If taken from the drop riser it should be connected as 
shown by Fig. 131. 

The sizes of mains for the overhead system are practically the 
same as for the two-pipe system, although the main riser may be 
somewhat reduced in size. When this riser exceeds 3'' in size, 
it is well to use a special elbow at its base (Fig. 132). This 
should be supported by a brick or cement pier, in order to relieve 
the building of the weight of water in this portion of the apparatus. 



184 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Expansion Tank Connections 

The expansion tank should be placed somewhat higher than the 
fitting on the top of the main riser. A very simple method of con- 
necting the tank is shown by Fig. 133. The tank should be placed 
on a support or framework of sufficient strength to make it 
stationary. No gauge on the tank is necessary, although many 
fitters use it. 

Another method is that shown by Fig. 134. The tank is 



VENT AND OVERFLOW- 



EXPANSION TANK- 



O O oooooooooooo 



ooo oo o oooooooo 



a 



HIGH POINT 
OF SYSTEM. 



V 



EXPANSION PIPE 




Fig. 133. — Expansion tank connection — o\erhead system. 



suspended in a horizontal position by iron straps hung from the 
roof timbers, which are strengthened sufficiently to support the ex- 
tra weight. The overflow may empty into a pan, from which there 
is a drip to the sewer in the basement. As is the case with the 
regular two-pipe system, no valves should be placed on the con- 
nections to the tank. 

There are several modifications of the overhead system, which 
lack of space will not allow us to illustrate. There is one method, 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



135 



ROOF 




Fig. 134. — Expansion tank connection with drip — overhead system. 



EXPANSION TANK ^ UENT AND OVERFLOW 




Fig. 135. — ^Modified overhead system. 



136 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

however, which we should be famihar with. It is frequently nec- 
essary in heating a store or small building to place both boiler 
and radiators on the same floor. To do this successfully, the main 
flow pipe should be run on the ceiling as shown by Fig. 135. The 
illustration shows an elevation plan without the branch connections. 
The branches should be taken out of the side of the main. The 
drop pipes supplying radiators should be connected into the top 
of one end of the radiator, the return being taken from the bottom 
of the opposite end. The expansion tank should be hung horizon- 
tally from the ceiling, with vent and overflow to the roof. No air 
vents are necessary, as all air in the system works out through the 
expansion tank. The work may be put under pressure, if desired, 
by sealing the tank and using a safety valve, as described in a 
later chapter. 

The Circuit System of Hot-water Heating 

The circuit system commonly called the " single-main system," 
has in the past few years gained considerable favor among heating 
contractors. A single main pipe, which also acts as a return, 
is taken from the top of heater to a point as high as desired under 
the first floor joists. From this point the connection to expansion 
tank is made. This main pipe is then run around the basement, 
in a circuit, near to the ceiling and with a gradual pitch from 
the heater, which should never be less than % inch in each 10 
feet of length, but may be more, if desired. This main, which 
is of extra large size, supplies all of the branches feeding the radia- 
tors on the first floor or risers to the floors above. The flow pipes 
or branches are taken from the top of the main, the returns enter- 
ing at the side. 

After supplying the various radiators, the main is run directly 
back to the heater, where it drops and is connected into the return 
opening of the same. The main must never be reduced, but should 
be run full size until it enters the return of the heater. 

Illustration Fig. 136 shows a general view of this system of 
piping. The fittings shown on the main, which supply branches, 
are of three kinds. Those marked A A are the regular tee 
fittings; those marked B B are the Eureka fittings, an enlarged 
view of which is shown by Fig. 137. This is a single fitting 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



137 




138 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

used for connecting both flow and return, the flow leaving the 
top of the main and the return entering the bottom. It is as 
easily placed as the regular tee and the saving in labor and 
cutting of threads is considerable. Those marked C C are the 
O. S. fittings for use on single-main work and they divide the 



Return 



Flow 



Return 



Flow 





Full View Sectional, View 

Fig. 137. — Eureka combinatioR fitting. 



circulation in the same manner as the regular O. S. distributing 
fitting. 

Yet another style of fitting for use on the main of a circuit 
job is known as the " Phelps Ideal "fitting, as illustrated by Fig. 
138. This fitting is quite like a tee with side outlet tapped eccen- 
tric. The flow is taken from the top of main and the return re- 





FiG. 138. — Phelps combination fitting. 

enters it at the side on a level with the bottom of the main. This 
is a much better fitting to use than the regular tee, as one fitting 
on the main does the work of two, saving thread cutting and labor, 
and it also has the advantage of delivering the return circulation 
lower down in the main. 



HOT-WATER HEATING 



139 



The branches should have an upward pitch from main ; also, 
the radiator connections are made the same as for the regular two- 
pipe system. 

We have found it excellent practice on work of any considerable 
size to increase the size of the radiators somewhat, that are con- 
nected on the last two sides of the circuit. The water in the main 
being cooled somewhat before it reaches this part of the system, 
it is necessary to provide more radiation in order that all portions 
of the work will heat evenly. The sizes of the branches may be 
somewhat smaller nearest the boiler than those toward the end 
of the main. It will be found that this system of piping will 
prove most efficient and acceptable when properly proportioned 
and erected. 

TABLE XIV 
Size of Main for One Pipe — Hot Water 



Size of Main. 


Direct Radiation Supplied. 


2 inclif^s 


175 sq. ft. 

300" " 

500 " '= 

700 " " 

1,000 " " 

1,200 " " 

1,600 " " 

2,200 " " 


3 

4 

5 
6 


' 


' ' 


< 


< 


' 


' 







The systems of low-pressure hot-water work we have described 
and illustrated are the principal forms of this class of work. There 
are several modifications of each, which it is not necessary to de- 
scribe as the same general principles of piping, etc., prevail. Hav- 
ing detailed the character of this work, it is well that v^e should un- 
derstand the principles which underlie it, and will therefore treat 
briefly on the cause of hot-water circulation. 



Why Water Circulates 

In answering the question — What causes circulation.'^ — we say 
that unquestionably it is heat which causes the water to circulate in 
a hot-water heating system. When heating by hot water first came 
into general use in the United States, the writer was taught that 



140 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

water, being heated, became lighter and when confined in a heat- 
ing system would ascend to the top and circulate through the pip- 
ing and radiators. This statement was a gross error, although 
we believed it at the time, and as we have heard the same state- 
ment made many times since, it is undoubtedly a very common 
error. As a matter of fact, hot water will move only when there 
is a cooler and heavier body of water displacing it and forcing 
it upward, and were it not for the difference in temperature be- 
tween the flow and return pipes of a hot-water heating system, 
there would be no circulation at all. 

Hot water, as it cools, becomes compact and outweighs the 
warmer water in the heater, causing it to rise in the system and 
circulate through the piping and radiators, the difference in the 
mean temperature of the water as it ascends and descends in the 
system keeping the circulation constant. The higher the water 
in the system, the more rapid the circulation, or, stated in another 
form, the greater the height of the return pipe (in which the 
cooler water is descending), the more energy and push against 
the warmer water in the heater and consequently the more rapid 
the circulation. The height of the flow riser (the ascending water) 
makes no difference in the rapidity of the circulation of the w^ater 
in the apparatus, except as the height of the return is increased. 
The velocity of the flow of water in a heating apparatus depends 
upon the difference in weight of the ascending and descending 
columns of water, with due allowance made for friction. There are 
several methods of determining theoretically this velocity. How- 
ever, as this book is written only from a practical standpoint, we 
shall not burden our readers with a discussion of these theories^ 



CHAPTER XIV 
Pressure Systems of Hot-water Work 

The high-pressure system of hot-water heating is not, as a 
rule, practiced in this country. In England we find it used for 
various purposes, such as laundry dryers, bake ovens, enameling, 
etc., the apparatus carrying from 250 to 350 degrees temperature. 
The piping used is small in diameter and extra strong, or extra 
heavy in weight. The fittings used are also much heavier than it 
is our custom to use on heating work. This system was designed 
and used originally by Mr. A. M. Perkins, of London, Eng., and 
is known as the " Perkins System." 

Pressure work as practiced in this country (closed-tank sys- 
tem), consists of sealing the outlets of the expansion tank, thus 
putting the apparatus under pressure, a safety valve being used 
on the overflow at the tank to regulate the same. On ordinary 
work it is seldom that a pressure exceeding ten pounds is em- 
ployed, the water in the apparatus at this pressure having a tem- 
perature of about 240 degrees. This style of work is probably 
used in greenhouses more frequently than in any other manner, 
and among its advantages are the use of less radiation, a less 
volume of water in the apparatus and a more quickly controlled 
apparatus. For use in heating dwellings or apartments it is 
objectionable because of the element of danger connected with its 
operation. Should the safety valve at the expansion tank become 
inoperative from any cause, an explosion would be the probable 
result. 

We have known heating contractors to use this method when 
they find that too little radiation had been installed to give the 
temperature required, and frequently to adopt this seeming remedy 
without giving notice to or obtaining the consent of the owner of 
the property, which involves not only a dishonest, but a very 

dangerous practice as well. 

141 



142 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The following table gives the temperatures at which water will 
boil at various pressures (atmospheric), with the equivalent head 
in feet: 

TABLE XV 



PRESSURE. 


Boiling Point (Degrees). 






Pounds above Atmosphere. 


Head in Feet. 










212 


5 


12 


228 


10 


24 


240 


15 


36 


250 


20 


48 


259 


25 


60 


267 


30 


72 


274 


35 


84 


280 


40 


96 


287 


45 


108 


292 


50 


120 


297 


60 


144 


307 


70 


168 


316 


80 


192 


324 


90 


216 


332 


100 


240 


338 



When it is necessary to place both boiler and radiator on the 
same floor, as is shown by Fig. 135 in the previous chapter, it is 
sometimes advantageous to put the w^ork under a moderate pres- 
sure in order to quicken and maintain a more positive circulation 
throughout the system. 

On certain work of this character it is sometimes impossible 
to run the overhead piping sufficiently high to admit of a free 
circulation through all of the radiators, those farthest from the 
heater not working as well as those placed nearer the heater. This 
is readily remedied by placing the system under sufficient pressure 
to maintain a free circulation in all parts of the apparatus. 



Expansion-tank Connections 

The expansion-tank connections for pressure work may be 
made in the same manner as for the open-tank system. The open- 
ing in the tank used for air vent is plugged and the safety valve, 
which is usually of the lever variety, is placed on the overflow pipe 
at a point near the tank. 



PRESSURE SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER WORK 14S 

Where a vertical tank is used, the connections should be made 
as shown by Fig. 139. Where a horizontal tank is used, the con- 





^Plug 




Ija-oT-DlS: 


0_0_Q Q_0_Q Q_0^ 0_DOQ£ 






su 


br^^I^lfIZr^^=^EiJ^i^^:L.— 




Safety Valve 


^-=^ 


o Air Cushion 









Overflow^«^^ 










o 
o 




] 


30 O O O 




o 
o 

o 
o 
o oooooooooooo 




Expansion^ 
Pipe ^ 









Fig. 139. — Expansion tank with safety valve. 

nections should be made as shown by Fig. 140. We show on this 
illustration the use of a vacuum valve. When the safety valve 



A 



-Vacuum Valve 



o o o I 



Safety Valve 




Overflow 



:Air-CushTOn= 



0000000000000000000000000 000 00( 



Expansion Pipe- 



FiG. 140. — Expansion tanlc with safety and vacuum vah-es. 



lU PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

is opened from excess pressure, trouble is frequently experienced 
in relieving the vacuum at this point, and for this purpose the 
vacuum valve is used. There are times, however, when the vacuum 
valve does not relieve the vacuum, due probably to the failure 
of the valve to operate. A very simple method of relieving the 



jCheck Valve 



Overflow 




COO ooooooooo 



o oo 



\s 



Expansion Pipe 



Fig. 141.— Expansion tank with method of relieving vacuum. 

vacuum without the use of a valve is shown by Fig. 141. It con- 
sists of a check valve used in connection with the safety valve. 
The connection shown from the check valve into a tee placed on 
the overflow pipe is made for the purpose of discharging any water 
which might leak through the check valve. 

A pressure system of hot-water heating that has been used ex- 



PRESSURE SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER WORK 145 

tensively in this country is that of Evans & Almirall. This sys- 
tem is only appHcable to large work, as the water is heated by 
the exhaust steam from engines, pumps or other mechanism requir- 
ing live steam. The water of the heating system is passed through 
a tank or heater constructed in much the same manner as a feed- 
water heater. Its interior is filled with copper tubes through which 
the w^ater circulates and is heated by the exhaust steam which is 
carried through the heater and which surrounds the copper pipes. 
The excess steam, or that which is not condensed in warming the 
water of the heating system, is discharged into the atmosphere 
through an exhaust pipe. The w^ater in the heating system is 
circulated under pressure by a pump, the velocity of the circulation 
depending upon the speed of the pump, which may be regulated 
at will by the attendant. Where the exhaust steam is not sufficient 
to heat the water to the temperature desired, a supplementary 
heater is used, such a heater being fed with live steam. 

This system makes an ideal method for the heating of de- 
tached buildings, or buildings adjacent to that in which the engines, 
etc., are located, as there is no dependence placed on gravity pip- 
ing or the use of traps as with steam heat. The temperature of 
the water may be carried just as high as the pump will handle it. 

Other systems which are in some respects similar to the above 
are in use, but are not so well known or as extensively used. 

Hot water under pressure is made use of by numerous manu- 
facturers for the purposes of drying, heating, etc. However, it 
probably will not, in this country at least, replace steam as used 
for similar purposes. 



CHAPTER XV 
Hot-water Heating Appliances 

We might, in the broader sense of the words, designate all por- 
tions of a hot-water system as " heating appliances." We confine 
our use of the term, however, to cover only those parts or " trim- 
mings " which tend to finish or render the appearance more comely ; 
also to those appliances which assist in maintaining a uniform 
temperature arid which render the care and attention due the ap- 
paratus less of a burden. 

The early systems of hot-water heating had a small pipe, of 
usually %" or %" in size, running from the overflow of the expan- 
sion tank to the basement. This was called a " tell-tale," and the 
operator in filling the apparatus would leave the water pressure 
turned on until the water was heard running from the tell-tale. 

The Altitude Gauge 

This crude arrangement has been dispensed with and in its 
place we now employ the altitude gauge. Fig. 14<2. This is or- 
dinarily a spring gauge of the Bourdon type. The gauge has 
two dials, a black and a red one. The black dial is attached to 
the mechanism of the gauge and registers the height of the water 
in the system, by feet. The red dial is stationary and is movable 
only by hand. After filling the system to the proper height, the 
same being registered on the gauge, the face of the gauge is re- 
moved and the red dial moved to the same position as that occu- 
pied by the black dial, when the face of the gauge is then replaced. 
As the water in the system evaporates, the black dial will drop 
away from the red one, indicating to the attendant that the water 
is low in the system. As the gauge is attached to the apparatus at 
or near the heater, it is necessary only for the attendant to admit 
sufficient water to the system to bring the black dial back to 

146 



HOT-WATER HEATING APPLIANCES 



147 



the position held by the red one, thus indicating that the system 
is properly filled. 

The Hot-water Thermometer 

The hot-water thermometer used on a hot-water heating ap- 
paratus is a mercurial thermometer, as shown by Fig. 143. The 
framework is of iron, or brass, on the face of which is the indi- 
cator. Attached to the face of the indicator is the glass mercury 
tube, the lower end of which extends through the center of a small 





- 




Fig. 142. — Altitude gauge. 



Fig. 143.— Hot-water 
thermometer. 

brass casting. The lower part of this brass casting forms a cup, 
and this cup part of the casting is turned down until it is very 
thin. 

This renders this portion of it very susceptible to the heat. 
A standard pipe thread is cut on the outside of the casting, which 
may then be screwed into an opening in the heater or other portion 
of the heating apparatus. This leaves the lower and thinner part 
of the appliance submerged in the w^ater. 

In order to get a true register of the temperature of the water 
it is necessary that the lower part of the thermometer containing 
the bulb of mercury be submerged in the water, as shown by Fig. 
144. Unless this is done the thermometer will register falsely. 



148 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




Fig. 144. — Right method of attaching thermometer. 

We have seen thermometers used where they were screwed into 
an opening which had been reduced in size by the use of several 



100 — 



< H. W. 

Thermometer 



II II 




Fig. 145. — Wronsf method of attaching: thermometer. 



HOT-WATER HEATING APPLIANCES 149 

bushings, with the result that the thermometer did not reach the 
water in the system. Fig. 145 illustrates this, and under such 
conditions it is impossible to register the correct temperature. 

Floor and Ceiling Plates 

Not a very long time ago we were accustomed to notice cumber- 
some cast-iron plates surrounding the pipes where they passed 
through floors or ceilings. They would frequently drop a distance 





Fig. 146. — Brass floor and ceiling plates nickeled. 

from the ceiling, and sometimes fall entirely to the floor below, be- 
cause they were insecurely fastened in place. These crude affairs 
have been replaced by a nickeled plate of spun brass, Fig. 146, 
or iron. Fig. 147. These plates are made in two parts and so 





Fig. 147. — Cast-iron floor and ceiling plates nickeled. 

constructed as to be adjustable. They are held to the pipe by 
springs and this method keeps them firmly in their proper posi- 
tions. 

The heating contractor now gives much attention to the fin- 
ished appearance of his work and this fact, no doubt, has led to 
the use of better trimmings on heating jobs. 



150 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Pressure Appliances 

Some of the more recent developments in accessories to a hot- 
water heating apparatus are various appHances for putting the 
system under a nominal pressure without sealing or closing the 
vent opening of the expansion tank. There is no element of danger 
presented by the use of any one of these appliances, as the system 
remains an open one, but is, however, weighted down in a manner 
which allows of a nominal pressure under the force caused by the 
expansion of the water within the apparatus. A considerable saving 
is made in the first cost of the heating apparatus by using an 
appliance of this character, as not only may there be a reduction 
made in the amount of radiation installed, but smaller piping may 
be used, the same as for a pressure system. 

The Honeywell system is operated by mercury. This appliance 
is designated as a " Heat Generator " and is illustrated by Fig. 
148. It consists of two pipes, one within the other, the larger 
pipe termed the " stand pipe," the inner one, the " circulating 
pipe." The upper end of the stand pipe is screwed into the bot- 
tom opening of a hollow bulb, termed a " separating chamber," 
which has also an opening at the top into which the pipe connection 
to the expansion tank is made. 

The lower half of the stand pipe is screwed into a bottle-shaped 
hollow casting, as shown by Fig. Itt9 (12), terminating in a hol- 
low cup or " shoe " screwed on the bottom of the pipe. The plug 
(16) screwed into the bottom of the bottle makes it tight, except 
for opening (6) on one side near the top of the casting, into which 
expansion pipe from heating system is connected. The lower part 
of the bottle is termed the " mercury chamber," being filled with 
mercury to the height of the small plug shown (10), making it 
approximately 1%" in depth. 

The principle of the operation of the generator is based on 
the fact that mercury is thirteen times heavier than water, and 
the apparatus is really a mercury seal, requiring a pressure of 
about ten pounds to break the seal and allow the pressure to reach 
the expansion tank. The various parts of the generator are so 
arranged as to allow the mercury to circulate under pressure and 
to be separated from the water (by plate 2) when the mercury 



HOT-WATER HEATING APPLIANCES 



151 



seal is broken by excess of pressure on the system. As the mer- 
cury is heavier than the water, it settles again through space 8, 
as per sketch, into the mercury chamber at the bottom of the gen- 
erator. 

The rapidity of the circulation through small piping and re- 
duced radiation, under a temperature equal to steam at ten pounds 





Fig. 148. — Honeywell heat 
generator. 



Fig. 149. — Sectional view of Honej'^'ell heat 
generator. 



pressure, renders the reduced amount of radiation (10 fc reduction) 
effective for cold weather and the wide range of temperature allows 
of a mild degree of heat in warmer weather. 



152 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

When installing this system there are a few points to be con- 
sidered, viz. : 

(a) The radiation should be figured as for the regular hot- 
water system, then a deduction of 10^ made. 

(b) The heater should remain the full size. 

(c) In proportioning size of mains, allow 1 sq. in. of area for 
each 100 sq. ft. to be supplied. 

(d) Make branches and risers of the same size and take 
branches from side of main. 

(e) Take branches for second or third floor risers from side of 
other branches, not from end of the branch to first floor. 

(f) Radiator tappings should be as follows: 

For first floor— up to 25 sq. ft. 11/2" ; 25 to 60 sq. ft. %'' ; 
over 60 sq. ft. 1". 

For second floor— up to 30 sq. ft. l/o" ; 30 to 100 sq. ft. 24" ; 
over 100 sq. ft. 1". 

For third floor— up to 50 sq. ft. 1/2" ; 50 to 125 sq. ft. %" ; 
over 125 sq. ft. 1" . 

The length of the pipe which screws down into the mercury 
chamber and connects it with the oval separating chamber is regu- 
larly 21 inches, which allows of a pressure of ten pounds upon the 
apparatus. 

A feature of the generator is that no mercury will be forced 
out of it and lost through the overflow pipe during the operation 
of filling the apparatus from the regular water-service pipes. 
When the water supply valve is opened the mercury is forced up 
into the separating chamber and held there until the apparatus 
is filled with water, or until the supply valve is closed, when it 
falls into the mercury pot and is ready for service. 

A detailed description of the operation of the generator may be 
given as follows : When the fire in the heater has warmed the water 
in the apparatus sufficiently for it to begin to expand, the pressure 
is exerted downward upon the mercury in the bowl or chamber, 
forcing it upward through the circulating tube and the space be- 
tween it and the stand pipe. As soon as sufficient pressure has ac- 
cumulated to force the mercury to the top of the stand pipe and 
the circulating tube, the mercury in the bowl will be lowered un- 
til its level is at the top of the lower inlet of the circulating tube. 



HOT-WATER HEATING APPLIANCES 158 

The two pipes now stand full of mercury, which, owing to the 
connection of the two columns at the top of the pipes, begins im- 
mediately to circulate. Unless the fire in the heater is checked the 
pressure will continue to increase until the mercury is forced below 
the inlet of the circulating tube, allowing the water to enter and 




Expansion 
Pipe 



Fig. 150. — Phelps heat retainer. 

pass upward to the tank until the pressure is reduced or removed, 
the baffle plate in the separating chamber dividing the mercury 
from the water and preventing it from leaving the generator. 
Owing to the small size of piping used, it is well to ream the ends 
of each length or piece of pipe used in the installation of the 
system and it is well also to test the circulation at as low a tem- 



154 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

perature as 110° and see that a perfect circulation may be main- 
tained at this temperature. 

An appliance quite similar to the Honeywell Generator in the 
results attained is known as the " Phelps Heat Retainer." How- 
ever, this has no mercury attachment, but consists of a double-act- 
ing valve inclosed in a cast-iron box, as illustrated by Fig. 150. 
A weight rests upon the valve disc that opens toward the expansion 
tank, so that the pressure on the heating system must lift this 
weight in order that the water may overflow into the tank. The 
opposite end of the valve opens into the heating system and as 
there is no w^eight upon it, the least condensing of the water in 
the system, due to a low temperature, wall open the valve and allow 
the water in the expansion tank to feed down into the system, thus 
preventing a vacuum. The pressure on the system at which the 
retainer operates is sixteen and one half pounds, allowing of a 
temperature of 250 degrees before the water can boilT 

As with other appliances of this kind, a large reduction may 
be made in the amount of radiation ; also small piping and radia- 
tor tappings may be used, but the heater capacity should remain 
unchanged, as it is necessary that this should be of ample size. 

As a cure for sluggish circulation, due to improper methods 
of piping on work already installed, or a heating plant with insuffi- 
cient radiation, it would seem that the use of a " generator " or 
a " retainer " should remedy the defect. 



CHAPTER XVI 
Greenhouse Heating 

The earlier methods of heating greenhouses were both crude 
and unsatisfactory. The improvement over the old forms of green- 
house heating and greenhouse construction has been such as to 
result in a complete revoluti6n in building and heating the same. 

The earliest method of heating a greenhouse, and one which 
for a time was more or less followed in this country, was the brick 
furnace and flue. This consisted of a brick combustion chamber, 
which was fitted with a cast-iron front, and the lower part pro- 
vided with grate bars and an ash pit. The furnace was built in 
a pit or cellar at one end of the greenhouse, the brick or tile smoke 
flue connecting with the furnace, rising at a sharp angle to the 
iloor of the house, where it was continued at a slight rise under 
the bed in the center of the house to the chimney at the opposite 
end. The hot air radiated by this flue was sufficient to heat a small 
greenhouse. There were so many objections to the use of this 
apparatus, such as the overheating and withering of plants, the 
killing of flowers by escaping gas through the tile or brickwork, 
etc., that it was discarded in favor of steam or hot water heat, 
as soon as the latter methods were generally adopted for green- 
house heating. 

The original method of hot-water heating in this country, 
as applied to greenhouse work, consisted of a cast-iron heater of 
a type similar to that as shown by Figs. 23 and 24. The piping 
was of cast iron, about 4" in diameter, with a hub or socket on one 
end. These were fastened together by using iron filings and other 
ingredients, making a rust joint. 

The various lines of pipe had an upward pitch to the far end 

of the house, where they terminated in a hollow cast-iron post with 

air openings through the top. These were called expansion tanks, 

155 



156 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

though they might more properly have been called " expansion 
posts." They not only took care of the increase in the volume of 
water, when heated, but served at the same time to extract the air 
from the system. We believe Hitchings & Company were the pio- 
neers in this class of work in the United States. 

Greenhouses are of two kinds, viz. : the commercial greenhouses 
in which are grown flowers and vegetables for profit, and the green- 
houses or conservatories of the wealthier class and as found also 
in many of our public parks and botanical gardens. In the heating 
of the latter the first consideration is the efficiency of the ap- 
paratus, without reference to the matter of economy in the con- 
sumption of fuel. On the other hand, with the former class (the 
commercial houses) both efficiency and economy in fuel are a con- 
stant study with the owner. The increase in the number of com- 
mercial greenhouses has been such that at the present time there 
is scarcely a town of any size which does not have one or more 
greenhouses, and in the towns adjacent to or within easy com- 
munication of the larger cities, they may be counted by the dozen. 
It is, therefore, important that the heating contractor become fa- 
miliar with the modern methods of greenhouse heating — how to es- 
timate the radiation required and in what manner the piping should 
be erected and the general conditions surrounding the work. 

Modern Greenhouse Heating 

The modern methods of greenhouse heating are by steam or hot 
water. There is a diversity of opinion among florists and garden- 
ers as to which system of the two is perferable, some florists of 
large experience advocating steam, while others of equal expe- 
rience and standing favor hot water. We are inclined to believe 
that hot water is best adapted for the use of florists for the fol- 
lowing reasons. 

(a) Greater economy in fuel consumption. 

(b) Uniformity of temperature, hot-water heat being m.ore 
constant and even. Should the fire for any reason get low, the 
water continues to circulate for hours. 

(c) Where hot water is used for heating, the atmosphere in 
the greenhouse is mild and humid, insuring a healthy growth of 
the plants and flowers. 



GREENHOUSE HEATING 157 

(d) The hot-water apparatus may be put under pressure, if 
desired, and thus equal low-pressure steam in intensity and quick- 
ness of action. 

There are some groups of houses so situated that a steam- 
heating apparatus is better adapted for heating than would be a 
hot-water apparatus or where a hot-water apparatus could not 
be properly installed ; hence it is well that the heating contractor 
become conversant with each of the two methods. 

Estimating Radiation 

A greenhouse structure offers less resistance to cold and frost 
than any other type of building, and, therefore, requires not only 
a greater amount of heat but greater care in its distribution in 
order to insure an even temperature throughout the house. 

In order to intelligently estimate we must know what tempera- 
ture is required for each house, as different plants require different 
degrees of heat. For instance, carnations require a temperature 
of from 50 to 55 degrees, roses from 60 to 65 degrees, chrysan- 
themums from 55 to 60 degrees, and houses for ferns, orchids, 
palms, etc., or, as they are called by florists, " general purpose 
houses " require from 55 to 70 degrees. Many florists have be- 
come growers of mushrooms, and these require a temperature of 
from 54 to 56 degrees. 

Exposed surface is alone considered in estimating radiation 
and there are several methods of figuring. Where houses are al- 
ready erected and it is possible to measure them, the amount of 
glass and exposed surface may be easily and quickly figured. 
Where this is not possible, the following rule will be found fairly 
accurate. 

For houses not exceeding three or four feet in height at the 
eaves and when built in groups with no side glass, find the floor 
area of the house and add one third for ends and pitch of roof. 
The result will be the amount of exposed glass surface. 

Example: a house 16' X 100' — no glass on sides. 

16 X 100 = 1600 -^i = 533 
1600 + 533 = 2133 sq. ft. of glass. 

For a house 16' X 100' with a belt of glass 2' high under 



158 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



eaves: Proceed as before, and to the result of 2133 sq. ft. add 
the side glass 100 X 2 = 200 X 2 = 400 + 2133 = 2533 sq. ft. 
of glass. 

To determine the amount of radiation necessary, use the fol- 
lowing table. This table is based on the temperature of a climate 
similar to that of New York City, where the temperature is sel- 
dom at or below zero and then for only a short period of time. 

TABLE XVI 



Temperature 
Required. 




For Steam. 


For Water. 


45« 
50° 
55° 
60° 
65° 
70° 


Divide square feet of glass by 

«< << (( ii a a 
<< c< (< <i: (« a 


8 

7 

6 
5 


5 
4 

SH 

3 



It is the custom to build greenhouses in as protected a position 
as possible and this fact is taken into consideration in formulat- 
ing the above table. When the houses are in a particularly ex- 
posed position, to give 70° inside, use the figures " 4 " for steam 
and " 2% " for hot water as divisors and the same proportionate 
addition for other temperatures. 

When estimating for the pressure system (sealed tank) of hot 
water, use the same divisors as for steam. 



TABLE XVII 



Temperature 

of Air 

in House. 


Sq. Ft. of glass 


and its equivalent proportioned to one 
in heating pipes or radiator. 


sq. ft. of surface 




Temperature of Water in Heating Pipes 






140° 


160° 180° 


200° 


40° 


4.33 


5.^5 


6.66 


7.69 


45° 


3.63 


4.65 


5 .55 


6.66 


50° 


3.07 


3.92 


4.76 


5.71 


55° 


2.63 


3.39 


4.16 


5.00 


60° 


2.19 


2.89 


3.63 


4.33 


65° 


1.86 


2.53 


3.22 


3.84 


70° 


1.58 


2 . 19 


2.81 


3.44 


75° 


1.37 


1.92 


2.50 


3.07 


80° 


1.16 


1.63 


2.17 


2.73 


85° 


.99 


1.42 


1.92 


2.46 



GREENHOUSE HEATING 159 

For a greenhouse exposed on all sides (not one of a group) 
it is well to figure all wall surface, sides and ends, and for each 
five square feet of wall surface add one sq. ft. to the glass surface. 

The preceding table will assist in determining the proportion- 
ate amount of glass to heating surface for various temperatures 
in the greenhouse, the outside temperature being at zero. 

Methods of Greenhouse Piping 

There has been much discussion among florists as to the relative 
merits of various styles of piping for greenhouses and we believe 
the consensus of opinion to be in favor of what is termed the " over- 
fed system." By this is meant a running of the flow pipes overhead 
from one end of the house to the other and bringing back a suffi- 
cient number of return pipes under the benches or beds to give 
the necessary amount of heating surface in the house. In arrang- 
ing for the heating of a greenhouse the boiler pit or cellar should, 
if possible, be placed at the low end of the house in order better to 
allow for the proper pitch and drainage of the piping, which in a 
house of considerable length is often a troublesome matter. If 
the greenhouse is built on level ground the boiler may be placed at 
either end and in the event of using one boiler to heat a group of 
houses, the boiler house and cellar should be centrally located in 
order to facilitate the arrangement of the piping. 

There are many advantages to be gained by the use of the 
overfed system, chief of which is the placing of a share of the 
heating surface in the most exposed portion of the house, thus 
tempering a large portion of the cold air which finds entrance 
through or around the ventilators or through the laps in the glass. 
In setting the glass in a greenhouse the panes are lapped over each 
other in much the same manner as shingles or slate are laid on 
a roof, and the lap made in laying each pane is in many instances 
not air tight. 

Again, in securing an even temperature of the air in the house 
the overhead pipes are of great assistance. We show by Fig. 151 
a small hot-water apparatus for heating a single house. The 
potting shed and cellar for the heater are built against the side 
of the house at one end. The flow pipe rises from the heater in 
the most convenient manner to a point well toAvard the top of the 



160 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

shed. This is the high point of the system and from this point 
the connection to the expansion tank is made. The flow is then 




taken into and across one end of the greenhouse and suppHes two 
main pipes which are hung overhead on the posts supporting the 
roof. These have a shght fall to the far end of the house where 



GREENHOUSE HEATING 



161 



a drop is made, each flow feeding four return pipes which are hung 
under the benches. The piping (both flows and returns) have a 
shght fall from the expansion-tank connection to the connection 
to main return. 

Fig. 152 shows a skeleton view of one half of the piping, and 
illustrates the system very clearly. Valves should be placed on the 
connections to each group of return pipes; those for hot water 
may be placed on either the flow or return connection. This will 
enable the florist to cut out from service any portion of the ap- 
paratus as desired — a very necessary operation in the mild days 
of the spring and fall months. 




To Heater 
Fig. 152. — ^Method of piping for greenhouse. 

The arrangement of the piping for steam is quite similar to 
that for hot water, the expansion tank and connections^ of course, 
being omitted. When piping a greenhouse for steam, valves must 
be placed on both supply and return pipes, the air vents being 
placed on the return end of each group of return pipes and care 
must be taken to avoid all trapping of pipes and the forming of 
air pockets in the system. Should the house be a large one and a 
number of return pipes be placed in each group it is well to use 
branch tees (see Fig. 52) on the supply and return end of each 
group of pipes. 

Where the side walls of a greenhouse are built high from the 
ground it is sometimes found advisable to place a portion of the 
piping on the sides. When a number of houses are built side by 
side it is an excellent plan to build a potting shed or inclosed 
passage along one end of the houses, and the main supply pipe 



162 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

of the heating apparatus should be run through this shed, branch 
mains being taken off as frequently as is found necessary. In de- 
termining the quantity and size of pipes to obtain a certain amount 
of heating surface, the table of pipe size and capacities given in 
Chapter VI will be found of great assistance. 

For the mains running through the center of the house it is 
not advisable to use pipe larger than 3" in size. As these mains 
are usually hung on the center posts supporting the roof, the 
increased weight of the heavy piping might cause damage from 
breakage or sagging. 



CHAPTER XVII 
Vacuum, Vapor and Vacuum Exhaust Heating 

Vacuum heating is the operation or running of a steam-heat- 
ing plant at a less pressure than the atmosphere, which at sea 
level is 14.7 pounds per square inch. On the ordinary steam-heat- 
ing plant we are accustomed to say, for instance, that we have 
two, five or ten pounds pressure. By this we mean, pressure above 
that of the atmosphere, and therefore the true pressure on such 
a plant would be 16.7, 19.7, or 24.7 pounds as the case might be. 

To state this matter in another form: water boils at sea level, 
atmospheric pressure, at 212 degrees Fahr., in an open vessel or 
in the ordinary steam apparatus with air vents open to the at- 
mosphere. Supposing we relieve the apparatus from all atmos- 
pheric pressure — the water in it will boil at a temperature of 98 
degrees. The word " vacuum " means empty space, or space void 
of matter. We are accustomed to speak of a bottle or other ves- 
sel from which the contents have been drawn off as being empty. 
This is not true, because as fast as the receptacle is emptied of 
its visible contents an invisible volume of air or atmosphere takes 
its place. 

Steam and air being of different densities will not mix. Close 
tightly the air valve on a radiator when there is no pressure of 
steam on the apparatus and the result will be that as the steam 
pressure is increased the air in the radiator will be compressed, 
making it impossible for the steam to fill all of the radiator. Open 
the air vent and the radiator will fill with steam as the air is pushed 
ahead of the steam and exhausted through the air vent opening. 
Steam is an elastic gas, or properly, is water turned into gas by 
expansion due to heating it to a temperature above the boiling- 
point. If unconfined, water thus turned into steam is expanded 
seventeen hundred times. Therefore, reverting again to the radia- 
tor, after the steam with which it is filled condenses, it occupies 

163 



164 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

but a very small part of the space within the radiator, the remainder 
of the space again filling with air, which must repeatedly be ex- 
hausted before the radiator will fill with steam. Vacuum as applied 
to steam heating means the use of some form of apparatus, such 
as an exhauster, pump, or other appliance, to keep the radiators 
and other parts of the heating apparatus free from air, or under 
a vacuum in order that the water in the system will boil at a low 
temperature and be converted into steam, which may then flow un- 
obstructed through all piping and radiators. The flow of steam 
in a vacuum attains a velocity of 1,550 feet per second. Thus 
it will be seen how quickly a circulation in a heating system can be 
established. 

With an apparatus capable of producing steam at 98 degrees 
(complete vacuum) to 240 degrees (10 lbs. atmospheric pressure), 
there seems no doubt but what any building may be readily and 
easily heated no matter how quickly weather conditions and the 
outside temperature may change, and that a minimum degree of 
economy in fuel consumption may be attained. 

With a regular system of steam heating the air in apparatus 
is never entirely removed from radiators and piping, particu- 
larly from the radiating surface. When the vacuum system is at- 
tached to an apparatus of this kind all air in every portion of the 
radiators and piping is exhausted from the system, rendering the 
heating surface more efficient. Thus old systems are benefited by 
the addition of the vacuum appliances and even though but a 
partial vacuum be maintained, the betterment of the job in effi- 
ciency and the saving of fuel are quickly noticeable. 

To this may be added other features which make a system of 
this character particularly desirable, among which may be men- 
tioned : 

(a) The low cost of installation, it averaging much less than 
for hot water, yet retaining all of the various degrees of tempera- 
ture regulation possible with a hot-water system. 

(b) Economy in fuel over either steam or hot water. 

(c) Less radiation required than for hot water, while still re- 
taining the range of temperature. 

(d) No danger from frosts or leaks, which frequently occur 
in a hot-water heating apparatus. • 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 165 

(e) Long runs of piping which very often cause trouble, ow- 
ing to inabihty to drain them properly, can with a vacuum system 
be entirely freed from the water of condensation. 

Improved Methods of Exhaust Heating 

In Chapter XII we briefly called the attention of our readers 
to the advantages of utilizing the exhaust steam from the engine. 
We now desire to describe several of the more modern methods 
of applying this exhaust to the heating of a building. To derive 
the greatest benefit from a steam-heating apparatus, it is neces- 
sary to keep the system free of air, and this is particularly true 
when heating with exhaust steam. 

Air in a greater or less quantity is always present in water 
used for boiler-feed purposes. As the water in the boiler is gen- 
erated into steam, all air collects in the various radiators or coils 
of the heating system and this accumulation of air obstructs the 
flow of the incoming steam and prevents it from distributing uni- 
formly over the heating service, with the result that the radiator 
or coil is never working at its full efficiency. 

Vacuum heating when originally used was applied to a system 
of exhaust heating and for some time was employed in no other 
manner. The original patents were taken out by Mr. N. P. 
Williams, in 1882. This was followed by the " Webster System " 
by Warren Webster & Co., the " Paul System," by Andrew G. 
Paul, and the vacuum system was applied to all classes of steam 
work. 

Fig. 155 shows the application of the Webster System on an 
exhaust steam-heating apparatus. Reference to the same will show 
the various appliances and connections necessary for a system 
of this character. " The operation of the Webster System is 
based upon the flow of steam and condensation from a pressure 
slightly above into a pressure slightly below that of the atmos- 
phere or into a partial vacuum." This is the explanation given of 
the principles of the Webster System and is, we think, sufficiently 
clear to be readily understood. 

With this system a partial vacuum is maintained only on the 
return pipes and the system is, therefore, applicable only to two- 
pipe work. At the return end of each radiator or coil, in the place 



166 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 167 

of an ordinary valve there is put a motor valve, as shown by 
Fig. 154 and Fig. 155. The working of this valve is automatic. 
It prevents the escape of steam from the radiator or coil and at the 
same time removes all air and all water of condensation from the 
same, thus making the entire surface of the radiator or coil effective 
for heating purposes. The pressure of steam in these radiators 
or coils is not reduced by the vacuum on the returns. This pres- 





FiG. 154. — Exterior of motor valve. 



Fig. 153a. — ^Webster motor valve 
at base of riser. 



sure is dependent on the volume of steam which can enter through 
the supply valve. At the base of each riser a motor valve is placed 
as shown by Fig. 153a. 

The vacuum on a Webster system is produced by the operation 
of a pump, which pumps the return water and the vapor (air) out 
of the system and delivers them into a tank which is open to the 
atmosphere to allow all vapor to escape. The return water is fed 
from this tank into a feed-water heater, and from this is delivered 
to the boiler by a feed pump. When a low-pressure boiler is used 
the vacuum pump is usually driven by a chain-connected electric 
motor, and the water and air are delivered to a tank placed suffi- 



168 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

ciently high above the boiler to feed the water into the same by 
gravity against the low pressure carried on the boiler. 

With this system smaller flow and return pipes may be used 
than for the regular two-pipe system of steam heating, and radia- 



Pc280 



P2098 



Pc278 



Pc274 




Fig. 155. — Cross section of motor valve. 



tors or heating coils may be placed below the line of the main 
feed or return pipes and work successfully. 



The Paul System 

Mr. Andrew G. Paul in seeking a method of keeping a heating 
apparatus free from air perfected a system which is known as 
the " Paul System." This is quite different from the other sys- 
tems of vacuum heating in that it removes the air only, the water 
of condensation finding its way to the boiler by gravity. It is thus 
applicable to either low-pressure or high-pressure steam heating, 
and to either the one or two pipe system. 

A special apparatus called an exhauster removes all air from 
the system before the steam is allowed to enter, the automatic or 
thermostatic air valves on each unit of radiation closing against 
the steam immediately all air is exhausted and the steam comes in 
contact with the air valve. This exhausting apparatus is of two 
kinds, namely, for high pressure and for low pressure. Fig. 156 
shows the high-pressure exhauster. It is operated by a jet of 
steam, and is the kind of appliance used on a system of exhaust 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 169 




Fig. 156.— Paul system— high-pressure exhauster. 




Fig. 157.— Paul system— Low-pressure exhauster. 



170 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

heating. Fig. 157 shows the low-pressure exhauster, which may be 
operated by water pressure. The return pipes and drips connect 
into a receiving tank, from which the condensation is pumped back 
to the boiler. This receiver is a closed tank and on it is placed 
a thermostatic valve for the removal of all air. 





Key to Fig. 


158 


A. 


Boiler 


R. 


Cold-water Feed 


B. 


Feed-water Heater 


S. 


Feed to Boiler 


C. 


Engine 


T. 


Suction to Pump 


D. 


Exhauster 


U. 


Discharge from Exhauster 


F. 


Feed Pump 


V. 


Exhaust to Atmosphere 


G. 


Ileducing-pressure Valve 


W. 


Radiators 


H. 


Back-pressure Valve 


X. 


Air Valves 


I. 


Exhaust from Engine 


Y. 


Returns 


J. 


Exhaust from Pump 


Z. 


Drips 


K. 


Compound Gauge 


a. 


Air Pipes 


L. 


Vacuum Gauge 


b. 


Supply Heating Pipes 


M. 


Gate Valves 


d. 


Blow-off and Overflow 


N. 


Check Valves 


e. 


Relief Pipe 


O. 


Live Steam to Pump 


f. 


Angle Valve 


r. 


Live Steam to Engine 


h. 


Water Column 


Q. 


Live Steam to Exhauster 


i. 


Radiator Valves 




Key to Fig. 


159 


A. 


Boiler 


T. 


Automatic Air Valve 


B. 


Engine 


U. 


Live Steam to Engine 


C. 


Feed-water Heater 


V. 


Live Steam to Reducing-pressure V. 


D. 


Aut. Return Tank and Pump 


W. 


Live Steam to Pump 


E. 


Back-pressure Valve 


X. 


Live Steam to Exhauster 


G. 


Live-steam Separator 


Y. 


Exhaust from Engine 


H. 


Grease Extractor 


Z. 


Exhaust to Atmosphere 


I. 


Steam Gauge 


a. 


Drip from Exhaust Head 


J. 


Compound Gauge 


b. 


Heating Supply Pipe 


K. 


Vacuum Gauge 


c. 


Drip from Heater 


L. 


Exhauster 


d. 


Drip from Grease Extractor 


M. 


Safety Valve 


e. 


Drip from Exhaust Pipe 


N. 


Water-relief Valve 


f. 


Feed-water Pipe 


O. 


Gate Valve 


g- 


Discharge from Exhauster 


P. 


Angle Valve 


h. 


Drip from Separator 


Q. 


Check Valve 


i. 


Return Pipe 


R. 


Reducing-pressure Valve 


J- 


Air Pipe 


S. 


By-Pass for Red. -pressure Valve 







Fig. 158 shows the application of the system on a two-pipe 
system and Fig. 159 shows a single pipe overhead or down-fed 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 171 




172 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 173 

system. In operating, the exhausting apparatus is first put in 
operation and all air removed from the system. The steam as it is 
turned on the system finding no air pressure to impede its prog- 
ress flows naturally and unobstructed into each radiator and coil, 
when having completely filled them reaches the thermostatic air 
valve, which closes as the steam touches it. When the steam is 
turned off and the radiator cooled, the air valve again opens, all 
air in it is exhausted, thus leaving the radiator in condition to re- 
ceive the steam again. There is a constant vacuum on the air 
line below the air valves. After the air has been sucked out of the 
radiators, however, these valves close. 

The Van-Auken System 

In many respects this is similar to the W^ebster and the Paul 
systems. An exhausting device known as a " Belvac Thermofier " 
is used on the return end of each radiator, which works in much 
the same manner as the Webster Motor Valve. A vacuum pump, 
receiving tank, together with the usual specialties employed in ex- 
haust heating, are also used in much the same manner as on the 
Webster System. 

In application several styles of piping may be used. For a 
heating plant with gravity returns a drip tank or receiver is made 
use of, into which the gravity return discharges. The drops from 
the various risers discharge to the tank through a trap. The 
main vacuum return is connected to this tank, which feeds directly 
to the vacuum pump. 

Mercury Seal Systems 

The systems described in the preceding pages are what might 
be called mechanical systems, that is, they require a pump, ex- 
hauster, or other device in maintaining a vacuum and removing 
the condensation from radiators and piping. A system of this 
kind would scarcely be applicable for heating an ordinary residence, 
or small-sized building. 

In order to maintain a vacuum on a heating system it is essen- 
tial that after having once exhausted or driven the air out of the 
radiators and piping it be prevented from entering again. It can 



174 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

be readily comprehended how that any simple method of accom- 
plishing this would be as productive of results as either one of the 
larger systems. The success of the larger mechanical heating 
plants led to much experimenting with the smaller systems. Ow- 
ing to its density, mercury was brought into use in conducting 
these experiments, with the result that two systems have been 
evolved and patented, one by D. F. Morgan, now known as the 
" K-M-C " system, and the other by Jas. A. Trane, known as the 
" Mercury Seal " system. Both are similar in principle, employing 
a mercury device for preventing the air from reentering the system 
after once having been exhausted. 

The "K-M-C" System 

Fig. 160 shows the general arrangement of the piping, boiler 
connections and special devices of this system. 

The air is driven from the apparatus by a slight pressure of 
steam and is prevented from reentering the system by a mercury 




Fig. 160.—" K-M-C " system of vacuum heating. 



seal. The end of the air line is submerged in mercury to the depth 
of about one half of an inch. This offers but little resistance in 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 175 

expelling the air, but effectually prevents it from reentering the 
system. An accumulating tank is used to prevent any water from 
entering the mercury seal. Sufficient water is always present in 
this tank to condense any steam which might enter through the 
air line. 

Fig. 161 shows a descriptive cut of the system with the various 
specialties connected. 

The damper regulator is a very important part of this ar- 
rangement ; it effectually controls the fire and prevents overheating. 
It consists of a drawn copper cylinder with a rubber diaphragm 




Floating Check 

OOa*- Mercury Seal 
Accumulating Tank 



Fig. 161. — "K-M-C" system showing attachment of fixtures. 

at the bottom. The expansion of air in the copper cyhnder, when 
heated, operates the regulator, which may be set to open or close 
the dampers either above or below atmospheric pressure. 

A special type of automatic air valve known as a " retarder " 
is used on the radiators and coils and to which the air lines are 
connected. The supply end of the radiator is provided with a 
Packless Diaphragm radiator valve, which prevents air leaks at 



176 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

the valve, which would destroy the vacuum on the system. The 
air lines are run in quite the same manner as described for the 
following system. 

The Trane System 

The Trane System, as designed by Jas. A. Trane, is also known 
as the " Mercury Seal System " from the fact that all air from the 
system is discharged through a mercury seal or trap which eifec- 









Mercury 


^ ,.., ^ 1 



Fig. 162, — ^Mercury seal — ^Trane system. 

tually prevents the air from reentering the system through the 
air valves, after having been expelled by the steam pressure. 

Each radiator is provided with an automatic air valve quite 
similar to the Paul air valve, having a union drip connection. 
An air-line pipe is run around the basement, convenient to the 
steam main and the air pipe from each radiator is connected into 
it. This air line terminates at a point near the boiler and drops 
down, connecting into the top of the device known as a mercury 
seal. See Fig. 162. 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 177 

The steam piping may be either one of the regular systems, 
and there is nothing special in the way of erecting the same, ex- 
cept to see that all joints are made tight and that the stuffing 
boxes of all valves are tightly packed. A safety valve which 
is air tight should be used, the " pop " spring valve being recom- 
mended. A compound gauge registering vacuum and steam pres- 
sure should be placed on the system. 

The mercury seal device shown by Fig. 162 is constructed some- 
what on the principle of the ordinary mercury barometer, the end 
of the air pipe dipping into the mercury, which is held in the cup- 




FiG. 163. — ^The Trane system of vacuum heating. 



shaped interior of the hollow base of the seal. While forming a 
seal preventing air from entering the system, the mercury offers 
very litle resistance to the expulsion of air from the system, a pres- 
sure of but one half pound being necessary to accomplish this. 

A general idea of the application of this system is shown by 
Fig. 163, which illustrates the air lines and mercury seal at- 



178 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

tached to a one-pipe circuit system. The operation of it is as 
follows : 

After starting a fire in the apparatus, a steam pressure of from 
two to three pounds should be maintained for a short period, in 
order to drive all air out of the system and determine whether or 
not it is free from leaks. The draught door of the boiler is then 
closed and the temperature at the boiler falls. As the steam pres- 
sure is removed from the radiators, the automatic air valves open 
and the air endeavors to enter the system, but is prevented by the 
mercury seal. However, the mercury will be drawn up into the 
tube above the seal to a height representing the difference between 
the pressure within the radiator and the atmospheric pressure 
without, and this height representing inches of vacuum will be 
registered by the compound gauge. 

The apparatus may then be operated at a very low tempera- 
ture and should any air again enter the system it is easily expelled 
by raising a slight pressure of steam on the system. 

The Ryan System 

The piping for the Ryan system of vacuum heating is installed 
the same as for the other styles making use of air pipes. 

An air trap is used instead of mercury for sealing the system. 
The main air line connects into a side opening in the trap, which 
is so located that this opening is 27" or more above the water line 
of the apparatus. A drip pipe from bottom of the trap con- 
necting into the return below the water line of the boiler, relieves 
it of all water carried into it through the air line. At the top 
of the trap is the opening through which the air is exhausted and 
an equalizing pipe from boiler is also connected into it at this point. 

A special automatic air valve is used on each radiator, which 
closes against the steam and opens again as the radiator cools, 
permitting the exhausting of all air carried into the radiator by 
the steam. Fig. 164 shows the application of this system. 

Vapor Heating 

The Broomell System is distinctly a vapor system, the tempera- 
ture never exceeding that of water at the boiling point, namely 212 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 179 

degrees. The piping for this system while smaller than used for 
steam has the appearance of the piping of a two-pipe system, the 
smaller pipe being the drip through which the air and water of 
condensation are carried back to the boiler through an apparatus 




Fig. 164. — The Ryan system of vacuum heating. 



which is described as a " combined receiver, relief apparatus and 
draught regulator." A few loops of indirect radiation termed a 
condensing coil are located adjacent to and above this receiver and 
a connection is mg,de from the top of the receiver to the bottom 
of the coil. From the top of this coil an air pipe is run into the 



180 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

chimney. The draught in the chimney exerts a pull on the appa- 
ratus, causing a partial vacuum on the system, which not only 
exhausts the air, but at the same time accelerates the flow of vapor 
through the radiators and coils. The pressure on this system is 
slightly above that of the atmosphere and is registered in ounces 
on the receiver. See Fig. 165. This receiver is the real heart of 
the system, regulating the draughts of the boiler by a ball-float 
attachment and acting as a separator and equalizer in dividing the 




Fig. 165. — Combined receiver, relief, and draught regulator — 
Broomell system. 



return water and the air which accumulates in the system, and 
again acting as a relief from any overpressure at the boiler. It 
can be so adjusted as a regulator that the draught doors of the 
boiler will close under the slightest pressure. 

Hot-water radiators are used with this system. The supply 
is connected at the top of one end by what is termed a quintuple 
valve, that is, a valve having four holes or ports through the disc, 
which engage with similar ports in the bottom or seat of the valve. 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 181 

Thus it may be entirely closed or opened one, two, three or four 
ports, thereby fully regulating the amount of heat or vapor de- 
livered to each radiator. At the bottom of the opposite end of 
the radiator — the return end — the air and return pipes are con- 




Bleeder^^ ~-j — y 
from Main / ,i 
Highest Water |* 
Line of Receiver i 



Fig. 166. — The Broomell system of vapor heating. 

nected by a specially constructed union elbow, which, while allow- 
ing all air and water to escape from the radiator, is closed against 
any pressure on the return line. 

It is recommended that the same amount of radiation be in- 
stalled as would be used for hot-water heating. Fig. 166 clearly 
illustrates the installation of this system. 



Vacuuni- Vapor Systems 

There are some systems of heating at a pressure below that 
of the atmosphere, which embody some of the principles of both 
the vacuum and the vapor systems, and these are aptly called 
vacuum-vapor heating systems. Representing this style of heating,.- 
we have the Gorton System and the Vacuum Vapor Company's 
System. 



182 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The Gorton System 

With the regular system of vacuum heating it is not possible 
to regulate the heat in any single radiator except by automatic 
heat control. With the regular vapor system the heat in each in- 
dividual radiator may be controlled, but it is not possible to attain 
a temperature on the apparatus of over 212° to 215° ; therefore 
the radiators must be larger than would be required for steam. 
The Gorton System is capable of heating under a vacuum or at 
ten pounds pressure. 

The method of piping used is practically the two-pipe system. 
An ordinary or a special type of a radiator valve is used on the 




Fig. 167. — Cross section of Gorton auto- 
matic drainage valve. 



Fig. 168. — Cross section of Gorton 
automatic relief valve. 



supply end of the radiator. The radiators may be built for steam 
or hot water. On the return end is placed an automatic drainage 
valve — Fig. 167. When the radiator valve is opened the drainage 
valve opens sufficiently so that all air and the water of condensation 
pass into the return pipe and down to the automatic relief valve — 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 183 

Fig. 168 — where the air is exhausted and the water returns to the 
boiler. The rehef valve is operated by the difference in pressure 
between the steam and the return mains. It opens to relieve the 
air just as soon as the air in the return main increases the pres- 
sure, when, having relieved the system, it will again close. 

This system has the advantage of a wide range of temperature, 
the use of steam or hot-water radiators and the ability to control 
the heat in any one radiator. It has this disadvantage, however, 
that it is applicable only to two-pipe work. 

Fig. 169 shows a view of the correct position of the automatic 
relief valve and the pipe connections at the boiler. The return 




Fig. 169. — Gorton system of vacuum- vapor heating. 



mains may be connected above the water line, as shown, or they 
may drop as indicated by dotted lines on Fig. 169 and be con- 
nected below the water line. The lowest point of return mains 
should be at least 18" above the water line of the boiler, and the 
relief pipe should be 4" above the return mains. The automatic 
relief valve is connected to the relief pipe and to the steam main as 
shown. 

The Vacuum-Vapor System 

The vacuum-vapor method may be applied to almost any style 
of piping. The special appliances necessary are an air trap, a 
float valve and an ejector. 

A condensing radiator is used as shown on Fig. 170. The 



184 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 185 

air lines containing vapor and more or less water are discharged 
into the condensing radiator by means of an ejector. This ejector 
is connected directly to the boiler or steam main, from which it 
receives the necessary force to operate it. The air and water 
pass through the return outlet of the condensing radiator, the 
water of condensation returning to the boiler by gravity. The 
air passes through the air trap and thence to the float or vacuum 
valve and into the atmosphere. 

In other respects this system is similar to those already de- 
scribed. 

The Dunham Vacuo-Vapor System 

A method of vacuum heating styled " Vacuo-Vapor " has been 
developed by Mr. C. A. Dunham, which is in some respects both 
novel and interesting, mainly in that the appliances employed 
maintain a constant difference in pressure between the steam or 
flow pipe and the return pipe without any mechanical means. The 
maintenance of this difference in pressure proves of great assist- 
ance to the circulation on the regular gravity system of steam 
heating. 

Like many of the vacuum systems, air valves on the radiators 
are dispensed with, the air and return water of condensation being 
taken to the basement into a small tank hung 18" or more above 
the regular water line of the boiler. A drip from this tank drops 
to the return opening of the boiler, the water of condensation re- 
turning to the boiler through this drip, which has a horizontal 
check valve on it near to the boiler. The condensation in entering 
the tank passes through a horizontal check placed on the return 
near the tank. The air, separated from the water in the tank, 
passes through a thermostatic and vacuum air valve to the at- 
mosphere. 

An air trap. Fig. 170A, is placed on the return end of each 
radiator, remaining open when cold and closing as soon as the 
heated vapor or steam reaches it. The closed trap retards the 
steam until the water of condensation collects in sufficient quantity 
to operate the trap, when it, together with the accumulated air, 
passes through the returns to the separating tank. 

When the system is working above atmospheric pressure, the 



186 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

accumulated air passes freely through the air trap or thermostatic 
air valve and the vacuum air valve above the tank, the water con- 
tinuing to collect in the tank until such an amount has been evapo- 
rated from the boiler as will lower the water line below the end of 
the equalizing pipe. This equalizing pipe forms a loop approxi- 
mately four feet in length connecting the receiving tank with the 
boiler, the end of the loop entering the boiler through an opening, 
tapped for the purpose, and extending below the water line. 

This permits live steam to enter the loop, equalizing the pres- 
sure between the tank and the boiler, permitting the water to flow 




Fig. 170a. — ^Air trap Dunham vacuo-vapor system. 



down 'into the return pipes and through the check valves into the 
boiler. This action again raises the water line above the bottom 
of the loop or equalizing pipe, effectually sealing it. 

The partial vacuum created by the condensing of the steam 
in the tank after the discharging process, relieves the pressure 
against the check valves on the return pipes, allowing the accu- 
mulated air and water to enter the tank, and relieving the returns 
of any pressure, as the partial vacuum reaches to the radiators. 

To obtain the most economical results from a system of this 
character, the supply valves on the radiators should be opened only 
enough to admit sufficient steam to properly heat the room, the 
pressure at the boiler being slightly above that of the atmosphere 
and not greater than one pound. The fire should be banked at 
night and the system operated under a vacuum. 

Fig. 170B shows the application of this system for ordinary 
low-pressure work. Smaller piping is employed than that used on 



VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 187 

a regular steam job. The return connections from all radiators 
should be %" in size, and the supply end of radiators tapped up 
to 50 sq. ft. %\ 50 to 90 sq. ft. 1", 90 to 185 sq. ft. II4". 

A special form of this system is devised for larger jobs, using 
live or exhaust steam, the regular form of air trap being employed 




Fig. 170b. — ^Dunham system for low pressure. 



on all radiators, and an air relief and pump governor or con- 
troller, which acts as a receiver for all condensation, is placed near 
the pump and is so connected that the pump may assist the cir- 
culation by pulling directly on the returns. 



188 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The Future of Vacuum Heating 

But a few years ago (1895) a heating engineer made use of 
the following expression in discussing the future of the heating 
business before a trade association: 

" If you can circulate a system below atmosphere in a large 
building you can certainly circulate it below atmosphere in a 
dwelling house. If you can circulate it below, how much below 
can you circulate it? It is possible that in a few years from now 
we will be heating houses not by hot water but by steam below 
atmospheric pressure, of such a low temperature that it gives all 
of the advantages of hot water without any of its disadvantages." 

His prediction is now an accepted fact and vacuum and vapor 
heating, as we may observe by following up the many ideas and the 
many systems already before us, have by the use of various devices 
described on the preceding pages become adaptable to any size of 
residence or building. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 

The Heating of Swimming Pools 

The simplest method of heating an open body of water such 
as a swimming pool or tank is by hot-water circulation. The 
heater should be placed sufficiently below the level or surface of the 
water that a natural circulation may be established between the 
heater and the tank. Fig. 171 shows an apparatus of this kind. 
The swimming pool illustrated contains approximately 30,000 gal- 
lons of water when filled to the normal water level. The size of 
flow pipe leaving the heater should be 6'' and this should supply 
two 4" feed or flow pipes to the pool. These may be connected to 
it at points about 18'' below the water line, the first pipe entering 
the pool about midway of its length, the last pipe entering well 
toward the shallow end. 

The return pipes should be connected from the deep end of 
the pool at a point about 6" from the bottom. The direction of 
the circulation of the water is indicated by the arrows shown on 
the illustration. The heater must be so set that the return open- 
ings in it are at least 12" below the bottom of the water in the 
pool. 

Fig. 172 is an elevation plan of the same apparatus and shows 
the relative heights at which the circulation enters and leaves the 
pool. Some engineers favor the method of having the flow pipes 
enter at the bottom of the shallow end of the pool and the taking 
of the returns out of the bottom of the deep end. This is not as 
good a plan as that which we illustrate by Fig. 171. With an 
apparatus installed in this manner the cross currents in the 
circulation thoroughly excite and warm all portions of the 
pool. 

189 



190 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

In estimating heating capacity for work of this character it is 
safe to assume that each 100 sq. ft. of heater capacity will warm 
1,000 gallons of water from 40 degrees to 90 degrees in from six 







bo 

a 

-£3 



to eight hours. Thus a 5,000-gallon tank would require a 500-ft. 
hot-water heater to properly do the work. As the tank capacity 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 



191 




192 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



is increased in size the relative size of heater may be somewhat 
decreased as shown by the following table: 



TABLE XVIII 



Capacity of Pool or 
Taxik— Gallons. 


Rated Capacity of 

Hot-water Heater — 

Sq. Ft. 


Capacity of Pool or 
Tank— Gallons. 


Rated Capacity of 

Hot- water Heater — 

Sq. Ft. 


5,000 
10,000 
15,000 
20,000 
25,000 
30,000 
35,000 


500 
950 
1,350 
1,800 
2,200 
2,550 
2,950 


40,000 
45,000 
50,000 
55,000 
60,000 
70,000 
80,000 


3,450 
3,800 
4,200 
4,600 
5,000 
6,000 
6,800 



There are many circumstances which would vary the above 
figures considerably. However, those given are sufficiently accurate 
for estimating and represent the gross rating of cast-iron hot- 
water heaters as listed by any one of the reliable manufacturers 
and whose named ratings may be accepted as correct. 

It is a frequent occurrence to find that the necessary depth 
for heater room cannot be procured, owing to low ground, trouble 
with drainage, etc. In a case of this kind it is necessary to make 
use of steam for heating the water and an apparatus of this kind 
is somewhat more complicated than the one for hot water already 
described. Where the steam is obtained from pure water, the pool 
may be heated by blowing live steam into the water through an 
orifice of the nature of an injector. A large circulating pipe is 
arranged at the deep end of the pool as shown by Fig. 173. At 
the top connection a reducing tee is used, as shown, in making the 
injector. This not only heats the water but causes also a circulation 
through the large pipe in the manner shown. Where it has been 
correctly used this arrangement has proven to be very successful. 

In the event of heating a large body of water, say 40,000 gal- 
lons or more, it is well to use two circulating pipes and injectors 
and they should each be placed at the deep end of the pool about 
from 18^' to 20" from each corner. The manner of circulation 
of the water in the pool is shown on the illustration Fig. 173. 

When making use of the injector method the greater the pres- 
sure of the steam the more quickly a circulation may be established 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 



193 



and the water heated. For this work we recommend a boiler on 
which a pressure of from 30 to 60 pounds may be maintained. 

The usual practice is to clean and refill a swimming pool about 
once in each week or ten days, depending somewhat upon the num- 



a=o 



0=0=^1 



janoa oio.ij ufBo^g- 




o 

I 



her of bathers using it. To keep the water as pure as possible 
during this period there is generally a small stream of fresh water 
entering the pool constantly, and the overflow openings of the 



194 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

pool empty the excess water. Therefore, it will be seen that it 
is but once in a period ranging from six to ten days that the full 
volume of water in the pool has to be heated. For this reason the 
steam-injector principle is the most economical as the excess of 
boiler power may be put to other uses, such as heating a tank of 
water for domestic uses or for shower baths. 

In determining the size of boiler power the conditions of the 
work must be considered. A safe estimate is one-horse power of 
boiler capacity for each ^,500 gallons of water. 

Still another method whereby steam can be employed for heat- 
ing a pool is shown by Fig. 174. Coils of this nature are placed 



HE 



(E 



'Water Line 



Steam Supply 



Return —(T 



fe, 



fe 



tfe 



P 



P 



P 



Fig. 174. — ^Heating swimming pool with steam coils. 

in recesses along the sides and end of the pool, the condensation 
returning to the boiler room, where it is pumped into the boiler or 
fed to it by an injector or return trap. 

Owing to the large amount of condensation in coils when 
used in this manner, it is well to use a header or branch tee coil 
and to make the runs as short as possible. 



Heating Water for Domestic Purposes 

A class of heating now largely practiced is that of heating 
water for domestic purposes. In the cities and towns of any con- 
siderable size we find numbers of flat or apartment buildings and it 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 



195 



is customary in the better class of these buildings to furnish the 
various apartments with hot water from a central supply tank 
located in the basement. Such a tank is called a storage tank. 
There are two methods of heating the water, first by means of a 
small hot-water heater, called a tank heater, which is directly con- 
nected to the tank, and second by means of a steam coil within 
the tank. Such an apparatus becomes a part of the heating speci- 
fications and the methods as generally adopted should, therefore, 
be understood by the heating contractor. 

Storage tanks are made in two styles, namely, horizontal and 
vertical. The horizontal tank is usually hung from the first-floor 




storage Tank 



Zf^Hot Water 
Service Supply 




Circulating^ 
Pipe 



/^n3\ 



Draw-off 



P 



Fig. 175. — ^Domestic hot-water supply — horizontal tank. 

joists by means of wrought-iron straps or hangers, or it may rest 
on brick piers. The vertical tanks are supported by cast-iron legs 
provided for the purpose. We have found the latter method to 
be better, as the weight of a large tank full of water is liable to 
strain the joists from which it is suspended, unless hung very close 
to a supporting wall. 

Fig. 175 illustrates the method of hanging a horizontal tank 
and making the heater connections, and Fig. 176 shows the method 
of setting and connecting the vertical tank. In making use of the 
latter method the tank should stand sufficiently high so that the 
bottom of it is above the return opening of the tank heater, as 
the return pipe is connected to opening in the bottom of the tank. 



196 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

When steam boilers are employed in heating the building or 
when steam is obtained from a central heating plant the water 
may be heated by means of a steam coil within the tank, as shown 
by Fig. 177. Black iron or steel pipe should never be used for 
this purpose, owing to liability of rust or corrosion. The coil 
should be made of galvanized iron or copper pipe, the latter being 



Hot Water 
House Supply 




Tank Heater 
Fig. 176. — Domestic hot- water supply — vertical tank. 

preferable, and it should be well braced or stayed in order that 
the expansion and contraction will not loosen it. 

The tank may also be double connected, that is, directly con- 
nected to a tank heater for use in the summer months and provided 
with a coil, and connected to the steam boiler in order that steam 
may be utilized for heating in cold weather. This method makes 
a very satisfactory arrangement. 

In determining the size or capacity of tank required several 
points should be considered. The ordinary tank capacity provided 



MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 



197 



when each apartment has its separate supply from water front 
in range is thirty gallons. When providing for apartments hav- 
ing but one set of bathroom fixtures, it will be found that an al- 
lowance of from twenty to twenty-five-gallon-tank capacity for 



Hot Water Supply 



Cold 
Water ^ „ 



Draw-off-Jj 
Fig. 177. — Storage tank with steam coil. 



steam 
Flow. 




each apartment will prove sufficient. The tank heater should have 
a capacity of from 20^ to 25^ greater than that of the tank. The 
following table shows approximately the sizes of tank and heater 
necessary for from four to thirty-six apartments. 



TABLE XIX 



Number of 
Apartments. 


Capacity of Tank. 


Size of Tank. 


Heater Capacity — 
Size of Grate. 


4 


100 gallons 


22"X60" 


78 sq. in. 


6 


120 " 


24"X60" 


78 " " 


8 


180 " 


30"X60" 


113 " " 


10 


215 " 


30"X72" 


132 " " 


12 


250 " 


30"X84" 


176 " " 


16 


365 " 


36"X84" 


254 " " 


20 


430 " 


42"X72'' 


314 " " 


24 


575 " 


42"X96" 


380 " " 


36 


720 " 


42" X 120" 


452 " " 



Should the tank service be used for other than regular domes- 
tic purposes, additional capacity must be provided. 

The manufacturers of storage tanks seldom place coils in them 
except according to specifications received with the order ; therefore, 
the heating contractor must specify the length of coil or number 



198 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



of runs of pipe desired and the size of same. As a basis of what 
is required the following table will prove useful: 



TABLE XX 



Size of Tank. 


Size of Coil. 


100 and 120 gal. 
180 " 215 " 
250 " 365 " 
430 " 575 " 
720 gal. 


4 1" pipes 
6 V 
6 1}4'' " 
4 11^" " 
6 IV/ " 



Steam for Cooking and Manufacturing Purposes 

While the use of steam for cooking, or rather the adaptation 
of certain methods for accomplishing this, is in reality no part of 
a steam fitter's education, we wish in a general way to make men- 
tion of the subject in this chapter, and at the same time to call 
attention to the use of steam for manufacturing purposes. 

No large hotel or restaurant is complete in its equipment with- 
out a steam carving table and in most of the hotel and restaurant 
kitchens all vegetables are cooked by steaming. Meats may be 
cooked or roasted in ovens made for the purpose, and when pre- 
pared in this manner, meat will be as tender as would be a pot- 
roast cooked in the usual way over the fire of a kitchen range, and 
will lose less weight in cooking than when roasted in an oven. Ap- 
pliances for cooking and baking are marketed by the builders of 
such apparatus and the steam fitter, as a usual thing, has simply 
to make certain specified pipe connections to the apparatus. 

The usages of steam for manufacturing purposes are many 
and varied in character. Double-bottomed kettles for the use 
of dyeing establishments, soap making, etc., and for heating glue, 
paste and numerous other purposes are in common use. For 
carpet cleaning, feather renovating and drying, in hat manufac- 
tories and for numerous other manufacturing purposes, steam 
is employed in a greater or lesser quantity, and the subject would 
require a volume to illustrate and describe the various fixtures and 
fittings. It is quite probable that more than two thirds of our 
manufactories make use of steam for purposes other than the 
generation of power. 



CHAPTER XIX 
Radiator and Pipe Connections 

In those chapters of this book having reference to systems or 
methods of piping for steam or hot-water circulation we have fre- 
quently made mention of certain styles of radiator and pipe con- 
nections. We shall in this chapter illustrate and explain the sev- 
eral modes of radiator connections and show the method of using 
swing or expansion joints on piping, together with some special 
forms of pipe connections which are made desirable by conditions 
of building construction. 

Steam Radiator Connections 

Fig. 178 shows the most simple form of connecting a single 
steam radiator with the main. The illustration shows the branch 
connection taken from the top of the main with a 90° elbow. A 





Fig. 178. — Simple form steam radiator 
connection. 



Fig. 



179. — Steam radiator connected 
from riser. 



45° elbow at this point would be preferable. The valve should be 
used on the end of radiator farthest from the riser or branch 
in order to provide for expansion. When a radiator is connected 



199 



200 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

from a riser on single-pipe steam work the connection should be 
made as illustrated by Fig. 179. This is known as a " stiff " con- 
nection and when used in this manner there should be a " double 
swing " or expansion connection at the base of the riser. In order 




Double Swing Joint 



Fig. 180. — ^Double swing connection at bottom of riser. 



that this form of radiator connection may be thoroughly under- 
stood we illustrate by Fig. 180 a riser feeding three radiators, all 
of which are connected with stiff joints. The radiator on the first 
floor is connected direct from riser with an offset valve ; the radi- 
ator on the second floor is connected by a stiff joint, as described 



RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 



201 



by Fig. 179, and the third-floor radiator is connected by a valve 
placed directly on the top of the riser. Note the double swing or 




Fig. 181. — Radiator connected with expansion joints. 

expansion joints at the base of the riser. When the riser is con- 
nected to main by a stiff joint on the branch, all radiators fed by 
it should be connected by expansion joints as shown by Fig. 181. 



Hot-Water Radiator Connections 

The regular form of connecting a single hot-water radiator 
from main and to the return is illustrated by Fig. 182 and needs no 
further explanation. When the same branch feeds a riser, as well 
as the first-floor radiator, the connection should be made as shown 
by Fig. 183. There is always a tendency for hot water in circu- 
lation to rise quickly to the highest radiator ; hence the connec- 
tion to upper radiator should be taken from the side of the riser 
as shown. 



202 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




Fig. 182.— Hot-water radiator connection. 




P 



-j^''^^_piYV( 



>? 



Fig. 184. — Radiator connection 
for overhead system. 






J^ 


"v_/ 




w 



I ^-"^ FLOOR 

RADIATOR- 



Fig. 183.— Radiator 
and riser fed from 
same pipe. 



m 



u 



ff? 



li 



^ 




m 



Fig. 186. — ^Flow connected 
at top of radiator. 





Fig. 185. — Connection for overhead system- 
swing joints. 



RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 



WS 



Fig. 184 shows one method of connecting to a radiator when 
the riser is fed from above by the overhead system. But one valve 
is necessary and this may be placed either on the flow or return 
connection. In order to make the connection as illustrated the 
riser must be carried a considerable distance from the wall. We 
favor the use of a swing connection, as shown by Fig. 185, in order 
that the riser may be run well against the wall and thus make a 
better appearance. 

Some fitters favor the method of connecting the flow into the top 
of one end of a radiator and the return out of the bottom of op- 
posite end. There are some cases where this is advisable, but on 
regular hot-water work it is not necessary. By Fig. 186 we show 
the manner of making this form of connection. 



Improper Use of Tees 

Notwithstanding the fact that in nearly all of the text books 
on steam and hot-water heating the fitter has been warned against 
it, and that writers on the subject have repeatedly condemned the 
practice, some steam fitters will persist in using a tee " bull head," 



Tee used "Bull Head' 






Branch'' 



mm 



mm 



llimi 

t!'!Il! 
lilifl 



Branch^ 



-Main 



Fig. 187. — Wrong use of tee. 



as illustrated by Fig. 187. The friction caused by using a tee 
in this manner must be apparent even to a person unacquainted 
with steam or hot-water circulation. This is more noticeable on 
hot-water circulation than on steam. The proper style of fitting 
to use is the double elbow, illustrated by Fig. 120, and when em- 



204. PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

ployed to divide a main into two branches the object is accomphshed 
with the least possible amount of friction. Fig. 188 as compared 
with Fig. 187 clearly illustrates this. 



Double or "Twin" Ell 



T 






if 

ii'llt. 

It ii 
fiiiti 



Branch^ 



-Main 



Fig. 188. — Double ell for dividing flow. 

Methods of Pipe Construction 

When a steam main is run at a considerable length from the 
boiler it frequently happens that in order to keep the end of it a 
sufficient distance above the water line it must be dripped and 
raised again to keep at the height necessary. When this is essen- 
tial the connection should be made as shown by Fig. 189. The main 





















f 




\ 






Main' 
Aul Air Valve ^ 


1 










< > 




'S 


\ 




Main^ 

Drip- 


-A 


5 



Fig. 189. — Method of relieving main. 



should be carried a short distance beyond the point at which the 
rise is made, and a reducing elbow used in connecting the drip. 
This elbow should be tapped and fitted with an automatic air valve, 



RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 



205 



as shown by the illustration. The use of this method will reheve 
the main of much friction and eliminates the use of a tee placed 
bullhead on the end of main at point where drip is made. On 
circuit work it occasionally happens that the main must be run 
very low owing to certain wood or iron beams supporting the 
joists. When it is possible to drip the main and rise again this 
difficulty may be easily overcome. Frequently, however, the base- 
ment is put to such use that a drip connection cannot be made 




Fig. 190. — Method of crossing beam without drip. 

or will not be permitted. By Fig. 190 we illustrate a simple 
method of surmounting this difficulty, which we think is self- 
explanatory. Care should be exercised in the alignment of the 
main on either side of the beam. 



Artificial Water Line 

When it is necessary to run a wet return under a building 
where the basement or a portion of it is unexcavated, it is some- 
times essential to create what is known as a " false water line." By 
this is meant a water line above that of the boiler and it is required 
in order that the return may be kept full of the water of conden- 
sation. This will prevent the short-circuiting of steam into the 
return and thereby cause trouble by retaining the water of con- 
densation in piping or radiators. There are several methods of 
doing this. Fig. 191 illustrates a mode quite commonly used, and 
the piping as arranged works all right, although we are inclined 



206 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




Main Flow 



Down 



False Water - 
Line 



Air Vent 
"Main Return 



\ Water Line 
in Boiler 



Valve for 
Draining Loop 




Fig. 191. — Common method of establishing a false water line. 

to favor the method illustrated by Fig. 192. The equalizing pipe 
shown, connecting top of loop with the main, prevents any false 



Main to Heating System 




Down False Water 

^^ Line 

Aut.Air Vent 



Valve to Drain System^ 
-^ into Wet Return ( 

AVater Line^ r 
in Boiler 




Fig. 192. — Another method of establishing a false water line. 

register due to unequal pressure, which might be a result from the 
use of the method as first illustrated. 



Cross-Connecting Boilers 

When the boiler or heater capacity of a heating plant is di- 
vided the boilers or heaters should be so valved and cross-con- 
nected that either of them may be used independently of the other. 



RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 



207 



On work of any considerable size it has been discovered that 
as a matter of safety and economy this plan is advisable. It in- 
sures the use of one part of the apparatus in the event of an 
accident occurring to the other, and it is economical from the 
fact that in mild weather or with a portion of the radiation turned 
off one boiler is sufficient to furnish the amount of heat desired. 
There is considerable variance of opinion as to the utility of di- 
viding the boiler power. Where the boiler capacity is fully large 



Steam Main-Q 



steam Main 




Fig. 193. — Cross-connectinjr steam boilers. 



for the work we believe that a considerable saving may be effected 
in the consumption of fuel by dividing the boiler power and cross- 
connecting. 

The methods or form of pipe connections in accomplishing 
this are many and varied. When cross-connecting steam boilers 
it is well to use an equalizing pipe connecting with the return 
header. The boilers may be connected as shown by Fig. 193 or 
Fig. 194. In the former style of connection angle valves are 
used on steam supply, while in the latter case a globe valve is 
placed on the vertical pipe leading from each boiler. The re- 
turns may be connected as shown on Fig. 194, or as shown on 
Fig. 195. 

When cross-connecting two heaters for hot water, globe or 
angle valves should not be used owing to the obstruction offered 



208 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

by them to the free flow of the water. Gate valves are the proper 
style on both flow and return connections. Fig. 196 shows a 




Fig. 194. — ^Another method of cross-connecting steam boilers. 

good method of connecting the flow pipes, while that illustrated 
by Fig. 197 is an excellent method of connecting the returns. 



Boiler 



Boilei' 




.steam or 
Sediment Cock 



Gate Valves should be 
set vertical. 



Water Supply 





M 




/ 




-Flange 






4 






L 





Fig. 195. — ^Return pipe cross connected. 



Should there be several flow openings from each heater they should 
all be connected into a main header from which the supply pipes 
for the building are taken. 



RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 



209 



When cross-connecting two steam boilers of unequal size or 
height, care must be taken to place them in such relative positions 



Hot Water 
Thermometer - 



[If Hot Water 
1 1 1- Thermometer 




Gate Valve 



Gate Valve 





} <; 




-- 




- 


-- 




'~ 



) 



\ 



Fig. 196. — Cross-connecting hot- water boilers. 

that the normal water line of one is on a level with that of the 
other boiler. It may be found necessary to set the larger boiler 



Boiler 



Boilei' 



-Gate- 
Valve 



-Gate- 
Valve 



Return 
Draw-oflf 
Connection 



^'''^V-vn . r^ . -^^^"g^ .Ml. Flange J— 1, Flang e ^4 _/Ret 
Fig. 197. — Cross-connecting returns — hot-water boilers 



Return 

Water 
Connection 



in a pit or to place the smaller one upon a brick foundation, in 
order to level the water lines. 



210 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



Pipe Measurements for 45-Degree and Other Angles 

The base of the triangle being given the length of the hy- 
pothenuse may be determined by the use of constant multipliers 




Fig. 198. — Measuring 45° angles. 

for each different angle. Fig. 198 illustrates the method. The 
following constants are the multipliers. 

TABLE XXI 



Angle (line B). 


Constants (Multipliers). 


11M° 

221/^° 

30° 

45° 

60° 


1.0196 
1.0824 
1 . 1547 
1.4143 
2.0000 



Rule. — To determine the dimension C (the hypothenuse), 
center to center measure, multiply the distance A by the constant 
opposite the angle B. 



CHAPTER XX 

VENTILATION 

Importance of Ventilation 

The need or importance of ventilation has been recognized 
for many years. Probably the first effort to ventilate a room of 
any considerable size was made by Dr. J. F. Desaguliers, as briefly 
referred to in the introductory pages of this book, who in 1723 
arranged a ventilating apparatus for the British House of Com- 
mons. This apparatus was used for upward of eighty years, 
being replaced early in the nineteenth century by a system of 
fans propelled by hand. These fans were arranged to exhaust 
the foul air at the top of the building. 

Records of ventilation by means of bellows or blowers by the 
Romans and later by the Germans are to be had. Without doubt, 
however, the British attempt marked the beginning of ventila- 
tion as we to-day understand and use the term. The early at- 
tempts at ventilation were to remove the air vitiated by the 
exhalations of many people occupying a single room and by the 
candles or various styles of lamps used for lighting. With 
the advent of the present-day type of heating apparatus came the 
greater need of ventilation in order not only to exhaust the foul 
air but also to provide a supply of fresh air to replace that 
vitiated by the breath of the persons occupying a building and 
also the oxygen consumed by lamps or gas burners for illumina- 
tion. 

Oxygen is the all-important element or quality of the atmos- 
phere and without it we can have neither heat nor light. It is 
required in the chemical process of combustion and without it fuel 
will not burn. It is necessary to sustain life and without its 
presence all living beings would die. The atmosphere we breathe 
is composed principally of about one part oxygen to four parts 
of nitrogen, together with more or less vapor or water in a gaseous 

211 



212 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

state or held in suspension and is expressed by the term humidity. 
Oxygen is the Hfe-sustaining quahty of the air, which is diffused 
or diluted by the nitrogen. The percentage of watery vapor 
present varies with the temperature and the exposure or proximity 
to a body of water. 

There is also present in the atmosphere carbon dioxide or car- 
bonic-acid gas, which by itself is not particularly harmful. Under 
certain conditions, however, it is detrimental to health, not from 
the amount usually present in the air, which ranges but from two 
to four parts in 10,000, but when present in larger quantities 
due to the exhalations from the lungs of several persons con- 
gregated in a single room. It then produces a feeling of close- 
ness or stuffiness, causing headaches and is otherwise detrimental 
to health. The poisonous matter thrown into the air or given 
off by our bodies is also the source of great danger to health. 
For example, confine a person in a tight inclosure. That person 
will liv.e as long as there is oxygen to breathe, depending upon 
the size of the inclosure. The oxygen will eventually be con- 
sumed and the person choke or suffocate, being poisoned by the 
carbonic-acid gas and impurities exhaled from his own body. If 
our exhalations are poisonous to ourselves what then may be said 
of the risk entailed by living in or even temporarily occupying 
crowded rooms, such as offices, workrooms, or places of amuse- 
ment where we are breathing the foul air exhaled from the lungs 
of our neighbors, some of whom may be suffering from tubercu- 
losis or other diseases and so contaminate the air with the germs 
of such diseases. Not a very pleasant thought but true never- 
theless and the fact should be carefully considered by every think- 
ing person. Ventilation is not a luxury — it is a necessity. 

As another example, enter a residence temporarily occupied 
for a social gathering. Entering the building from outside where 
the air is pure into brilliantly lighted rooms not sufficiently ven- 
tilated and possibly more or less crowded with people, a feeling 
of closeness, stuffiness, or suffocation is at once apparent. A 
person not strongly constituted or in good health may in a short 
time faint from lack of air, while a stronger individual may 
perhaps become acclimated and soon fail to notice the oppress- 
ing effects of the foul atmosphere of the room. 



VENTILATION 



213 



The use of electricity for lighting purposes has done much 
toward maintaining the purity of the atmosphere under conditions 
as cited above. Dr. Tidy after exhaustive tests compiled the 
following table showing the air consumed by various modes of 
artificial lighting and the percentage of carbonic-acid gas given 
off by the various burners : 

TABLE XXII 



Light Producing Material 

equal to 12 Standard 

Candles. 


Cubic Feet 
of Oxygen 
Consumed. 


Cubic Feet 

of Air 
Consumed. 


Cubic Feet 
of Carbonic 
Acid given 


Cubic Feet 

of Air 
Vitiated. 


Heat, Equal 
Parts of, 
raised to 
10° Fahr. 


Common Gas. . ... 


5.45 
4.75 
6.81 
7.51 
8.41 
None 


17.25 
23.75 
34.05 

37.85 
42.05 
None 


3.21 
3.33 
4.50 

5.77 
5.90 
None 


345.25 
356.75 
484 . 05 
614.85 
632.25 
None 


278.6 
233.5 
361.9 
351.7 
383 . 1 
13.8 


Sperm Oil. 


Paraffin 


Sperm Candles 

Wax Candles 


Electric Light 





That the need of ventilation has long been recognized by 
physicians, scientists and engineers is shown by the works of such 
men as Chas. Hood, London, whose writings and book published 
in 1879 are a fair treatise of the subject. Other works more or 
less practical were published by Dr. D. B. Reid (1844) and by 
Chas. Tomlinson (1864). Probably the most authentic Ameri- 
can work is that from the pen of Dr. John S. Billings, of Wash- 
ington, D. C, a Surgeon of the United States Navy, whose book 
on warming and ventilation is accepted as a standard authority. 
Other publications by Thos. Box, F. Schuman, C.E., Butler, 
Leeds, and the authorities mentioned in the introduction of this 
book will repay a careful reading. 



Air Necessary for Ventilation 

What amount of air is necessary for ventilation .^^ This ques- 
tion may be answered by numerous examples. Perfect ventila- 
tion might be said to be the exhausting of the foul air and the 
admitting of the fresh air in such quantities that the inhabitants 
of a room or building would never inhale the same air twice, or, 
in other words, would breathe air inside the building of the same 
purity as that on the outside. Such a state, however, is neither 



SI 4 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

practical nor necessary. With the size and conditions of a build- 
ing and the probable number of occupants known it is possible 
to estimate very closely the air supply necessary to maintain a 
certain standard of purity of the air within the building. 

Not so many years ago a fresh-air supply of 300 cubic feet 
per hour per person was considered sufficient. To-day we look 
upon 30 cubic feet per minute or 1,800 cubic feet per hour per 
person as being the minimum supply essential. Dr. Billings 
gives the hourly air supply necessary for certain requirements as 

follows : 

TABLE XXIII 



Hospitals 

Ijegislative Assembly Halls . . 

Barracks, Bedrooms and Workshops 

Schools and Churches 

Theaters and Ordinary Halls of Audience . 

Office Rooms 

Dinin<r Rooms 



Cubic Feet per Hour. 



3,600 per Bed 
3,600 per Seat 
3,600 per Person 
2,400 per Person 
2,000 per Seat 
1,800 per Person 
1,800 per Person 



It has been recently stated that within a certain congested 
district in the City of New York there are 70,000 consumptives. 
There is no question but that this terrible showing is due to the 
overcrowded offices, sleeping rooms and workshops, the latter more 
popularly designated as sweat shopsr, where the admission of 
only a very small percentage of air, as per Dr. Billings' schedule, 
would work wonders in the elimination of disease. 

The average individual spends one third of his or her life 
in the bed or sleeping room. Without the necessary amount of 
fresh air to breathe how much solid rest or physical relaxation 
may we enjoy.^^ Sleeping rooms should, therefore, be well ven- 
tilated and this may usually be accomplished by the thorough 
airing of the sleeping room during the day and the opening of 
the windows at night. By giving the matter a little thought and 
attention the bed may be so located that no severe draughts are 
felt by the occupants. However, to properly ventilate the room 
it should have its separate pure-air supply, tempered by heating, 
and a ventilating duct leading from the room to the main ven- 
tilating stack of the building. 



VENTILATION 215 

Massachusetts was the pioneer among the states to enact laws 
governing the heating and ventilating of public-school buildings. 
A fresh-air supply of 30 cubic feet per person per minute is 
demanded and this commonwealth maintains a Board of Engineers 
to see that the provisions of the law are fulfilled. The laws are 
imperative, as the following extracts will show: 

" 1. The apparatus, with proper management, is to heat all 
the rooms including the corridors, to 70° Fahr. in any weather.''^ 

" ^. With the rooms at 70° Fahr. and a difference of not less 
than 40° Fahr. between the temperature of the outside air and 
that of the air entering the room at the warm-air inlet, the appa- 
ratus is to supply at least 30 cubic feelr of air per minute for each 
scholar accommodated.^^ 

" 3. Such supply of air is to so circulate in the rooms that no 
uncomfortable draught will be felt, and the difference in tempera- 
ture between any two points on the breathing plane in the occu- 
pied portion of a room is not to exceed 3° Fahr.'' 

We have italicized such portions of the quotation as will bring 
them prominently before our readers. Other States have enacted 
laws quite similar and with the standard as set by Massachusetts 
as a guide, it is quite an uncommon thing to find at this date a 
school building of any considerable size which is not provided with 
some form of a ventilating apparatus in connection with the heat- 
ing of the building. 

The result is that, as a rule, our children attending school sit 
and study in an atmosphere much purer than that within the ma- 
jority of our own homes. This very desirable condition relating to 
the ventilation of our public schools is due to two distinct causes. 
First, the writings of eminent physicians, scientists and heating 
and ventilating engineers, who having noted the former condition 
of our schools and other public or semipublic buildings and under- 
standing what was necessary regarding a pure-air supply, have 
persistently for years conducted a campaign for pure air. Dis- 
cussions of the subject by engineering societies, articles in the pub- 
lic press, books written and published in the interests of better heat- 
ing and ventilating apparatus all had their weight and all have 
assisted materially in bringing about the improved conditions. 

The second cause of the changed conditions may be credited to 



216 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

those manufacturers of ventilating necessities such as fans, heaters, 
blowers, etc., who have for several years spread broadcast expen- 
sive catalogues and much other literature and who maintain a 
corps of engineers to assist architects and builders in the proper 
arrangement and equipment of buildings for heating and ventilat- 
ing. Aside from the monetary considerations and profits accru- 
ing from such work, there is a satisfaction which all must expe- 
rience when they are contributing to the health and happiness of 
thousands of human beings. 

There is still much to be desired, but with the architects alive 
to the situation and the public aware of the results possible to 
be obtained, we shall witness very few school buildings erected 
without the provision of an adequate heating and ventilating 
apparatus. 

All government buildings and practically all theaters and 
places of amusement now planned and erected are provided with 
ventilating apparatus and the campaign for the ventilating of 
shops and factories is well under way. 

Probably no clearer idea of the air required for ventilation can 
be had than that given by the B. F. Sturtevant Company, which 
we reproduce in part. 

" Amount of Air Reqitired for Ventilation. — Under the 
general conditions of outdoor air, namely, 70° temperature and 70 
per cent of complete saturation, an average adult man, when sit- 
ting at rest as in an audience, makes 16 respirations per minute 
of 30 cubic inches each, or 480 cubic inches per minute. Under the 
previously assumed conditions of 70° temperature and 70 per cent 
humidity, the air thus inhaled will consist of about i oxygen and 
f nitrogen, together with about 1^^ per cent aqueous vapor and 
Y^ of a per cent carbonic acid. By the process of respiration the 
air will, when exhaled, be found to have lost about ^ of its oxygen 
by the formation of carbonic acid, which will have increased about 
one hundredfold, thus forming about 4 per cent, while the water 
vapor will form about 5 per cent of the volume. In addition, the 
inhaled air will have been warmed from 70° to 90°, and, notwith- 
standing the increased proportion of carbonic acid — which is about 
one and one half times heavier than air — will, owing to the increase 
of temperature and the levity of the water vapor, be about 3 per 



VENTILATION 217 

cent lighter than when inhaled. Thus it will be seen that this 
vitiated air will not fall to the ground, as has often been presumed, 
but will naturally rise above the level of the breathing line, and the 
carbonic acid will immediately diffuse itself into the surrounding 
air. In addition to the carbonic acid exhaled in the process of res- 
piration, a small amount is given off by the skin. Furthermore, 
1% to 2% lbs. of water are evaporated daily from the surface of 
the skin of a person in still life. If the air supply at 70° is as- 
sumed to have a humidity of 70 per cent and to be saturated when 
it leaves the body at a higher temperature, then at least four 
cubic feet of air per minute will be required to carry away this 
vapor. 

" Taking into consideration these various factors, it becomes 
evident that at least 41/2 cubic feet of fresh air will be required 
per minute for respiration and for the absorption of moisture and 
dilution of carbonic-acid gas from the skin. This, however, is 
only on the assumption that any given quantity of air having ful- 
filled its office, is immediately removed without contamination of 
the surrounding atmosphere ; but this condition is impossible, for 
the spent air from the lungs, containing about 400 parts of car- 
bonic-acid gas in 10,000, is immediately diffused in the atmos- 
phere. The carbonic-acid gas does not fall to the floor as a 
separate gas, but is intimately mixed with the air and equally 
distributed throughout the apartment. 

" It must then be evident that ventilation is in effect but a 
process of dilution and that when the vitiation of the air discharged 
from the lungs is known and the degree of vitiation to be main- 
tained in the apartments is decided, the necessary constant supply 
of fresh air to maintain this standard may be very easily deter- 
mined. For the purpose of calculation, 0.6 cubic foot per hour is 
accepted as the average production of carbonic acid by an adult 
at rest and the proportion of this gas in the external air as 4 parts 
in 10,000. If, therefore, the degree of vitiation of the occupied 
room be maintained at, say, 6 parts in 10,000, there will be per- 
missible an increment of only 2 parts in 10,000 above that of the 
normal atmosphere, or 2-10,000 = .0002 of a cubic foot of car- 
bonic acid in each cubic foot of air. The 0.6 cubic foot of car- 
bonic acid produced per hour by a single individual will, therefore, 



218 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

require for its dilution to this degree 0.6 -f- .0002 = 3,000 cubic 

feet of air per hour. Upon this basis the following table has been 

calculated : 

TABLE XXIV 

Cubic Feet of Air Containing Four Parts of Carbonic Acid in 
Ten Thousand Supplied per Person 



Per Hour. . . 
Per Min... 


6,000 
100 


4,000 
66.6 


3,000 
50 


2,400 
40 


2,000 
33.3 


1,800 
30 


1,714 

28.6 


1,500 
25 


1,200 
20 


1,000 
16.6 


525 
9.1 


375 
6.2 


231 
3.8 


Degree of Vitiation of the Air in the Room 


Parts of Car- 
bonic Acid 
ill 10,000 . . 


5 


5.5 


6 


6.5 


7 


7.33 


7.5 


8 


9 


10 


15 


20 


30 



" The figures indicate absolute relations under the stated condi- 
tions, and are generally applicable to the ventilation of schools, 
churches, halls of audience and the like, where the occupants are 
reasonably healthy and remain at rest. But the absolute air volume 
to be supplied cannot be specified with certainty in advance, with- 
out a thorough knowledge of all the conditions and modifying 
circumstances — in fact, the climate, the construction of the build- 
ing, the size of the rooms, the number of occupants, their healthful- 
ness and their activity, together with the time during which the 
rooms are occupied, all have their direct influences. Under all 
these considerations, it is readily seen that no standard allowance 
can be made to suit all circumstances, and results will be satisfac- 
tory only in so far as the designer understandingly, with the knowl- 
edge of the various requirements as they have here been given, 
makes such allowance." 



Methods of Ventilation 

A building may be properly ventilated only when adequate 
provision has been made by the architect and builder of such 
stacks, flues or ducts as may be necessary for the use of the sys- 
tem of ventilation to be adopted. There are two general methods 
of producing ventilation, namely, natural and mechanical. Nat- 
ural ventilation as expressed and understood is caused by ducts 
so constructed that the velocity of the outside air or difference 



VENTILATION 219 

in temperatures produces a change of air within a building. This 
method by itself is quite unsatisfactory, but when assisted by heat- 
ing surfaces placed within the exhaust flues and warming the en- 
tering air by passing it over or between the heated surfaces of 
radiators in a manner commonly styled indirect heating, is pro- 
ductive of fairly good results. 

This method is shown by Figs. 96, 97 and 98. These radi- 
ators are located in the basement of the building and connected 
to the supply or hot-air register by a galvanized-iron duct, the 
foul air being exhausted through a ventilating duct which is 
heated by means of an aspirating coil or other device. The enter- 
ing air may also be warmed by passing between the surfaces of 
a direct radiator, the bottom of which rests on or is inclosed in 
an iron boxing connecting with and receiving air through a duct 
from outside the building. This air is passed from the boxing 
upward between the sections of the radiator into the room. An 
arrangement of this kind is styled a direct-indirect or semidirect 
radiator. See Fig. 101. 

By placing gas jets, a pipe coil or small radiator in the ven- 
tilating flue, the air is expanded, creating an upward current 
which sucks the foul air from the room into the duct. This sys- 
tem of ventilating may be so arranged as to be entirely adequate 
for a small residence or a larger building if sparsely occupied, 
and may be employed to good advantage for small schools or 
kindred buildings, although as a usual thing, a school should be 
provided with a system of mechanical ventilation, of which we 
shall speak later on. 

In ventilating the living rooms of a residence a main ventilat- 
ing shaft should be provided, centrg,lly located, into which foul- 
air ducts from the various rooms should be connected. In this 
shaft there should be placed an aspirating coil connected with the 
house-heating apparatus, steam or hot water, for use during the 
period when the heating apparatus is operated. For summer 
use the gas supply should be piped into the shaft and one or 
more gas burners attached. An opening into the shaft in the 
basement, fitted with a door, should be provided to gain admit- 
tance to the gas burners. This is a requirement needed only when 
the rooms are occupied by an unusual number of persons. Fig. 



220 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

199 shows a method of connecting the foul-air duct with the ven- 
tilating shaft. A register should be set in an inside wall of each 
living room at a point just above the baseboard and a foul-air 
duct run as shown by the illustration. 

Rooms having open fireplaces are easily ventilated in warm 
weather by gas jets placed within the opening to chimney. The 
fresh-air supply for a residence may be furnished by indirect or 
semidirect radiators placed as we have shown by Figs. 96, 97, 
98 and 101. When no special provision is made for the admis- 
sion of pure air to a residence, or where the cost of indirect heat- 
ing seems to make its use prohibitive, there should be at least 
one fresh-air inlet. This should be placed in the lower or re- 
ception hall and as great a volume of air admitted as can be 
tempered by an indirect radiator placed beneath the floor, the 



V 



^ Stack 



■Ventilating 
Shaft 



^rHWsst.'^^rH /r?=^^^K^i^,^r^^'t;^-^.K^^^~^^^;'■f=^^l 




Foul Air Duct between Joists S 



Fig. 199. — Connecting foul-air duct to ventilating shaft. 



size of same depending upon existing conditions. The inlet reg- 
isters for all ventilation of this character should be placed in the 
wall at a point about two thirds the height of the ceiling and they 
should be located at a point opposite to the fireplace, if there be 
one in the room. See Fig. 200. 

The importance of chimneys as ventilating shafts is not gen- 
erally recognized. The open fireplace, when in use, provides a 



VENTILATION 



221 



most successful means of exhausting the foul air from a room. 
A chimney or shaft may be successfully used for ventilation b}^ 
running a smoke flue constructed of boiler iron through the center 
of the shaft and surrounding it with ventilating ducts of such 
number and size as may be necessary to accommodate the rooms 
to be ventilated. When used in this connection a chimney should 




Location of fresh-air inlet. 



be located in the center of the building and the bottom of the 
smoke flue should rest on a cast-iron plate supported on a brick 
or stone foundation, as shown by Fig. 201. 

The arrangement of ventilating ducts is shown by Fig. 202. 
These ducts rise to the height of the brickwork of the chimney, 
on the top of which there should be erected an iron canopy open 
at the sides. The smoke flue should protrude through the top 
of the canopy and may have a cowl at the extreme end, if desired. 
The smoke flue should be anchored to the brick walls by iron 
clamps, as illustrated by Fig. 203. These anchor clamps should 
be attached at the line of each floor, at the roof line and at the 
top of the brick chimney. The smoke flue warms and expands 
the air in the ventilating ducts, inducing an upward circulation, 



222 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

which exhausts the foul air from each room and dischars:es it 
into the atmosphere under the canopy at the top of the chimney. 
This method of ventilation, in connection with indirect or 
semidirect radiators for warming, is quite successful and by 
slight modifications may be readily adapted for many small build- 



Smoke Stack 




Fig. 203. — Iron clamps for support- 
FiG. 201. — Construction of ventilating shaft. ing stack. 



ings. For residences this method may be employed in place of 
the ventilating shaft as previously mentioned. 

The movement of air in the vertical or main vent flues should 
not be less than 6 feet per second. With an arrangement of the 
flues as described above, if properly constructed, this velocity, 
or even a greater, should be easily obtained. 

Make the register openings of such sizes that the velocity 
of the air through them will not be more than one half that in 
the vertical duct, or in other words, not more than 3 feet per 



VENTILATION 2^3 

second. If this schedule is adhered to, no perceptible draughts 
will abound or be felt by the occupants of a room. 

When semidirect radiators are used for warming the enter- 
ing air, the dampers may be adjusted to suit the state of the 
weather. With indirect radiation the registers should equal in 
size and open area those used for foul air. 

Definite results as to air volume and velocity may be obtained 
by properly proportioning the amount of heating surface and 
the sizes of hot and cold air ducts. This is particularly true in 
cold weather when the maximum amount of pure air would be 
supplied to the building. 

There seems to be no question but that the combination of 
gravity ventilation and indirect heating is one that gives vary- 
ing quantities of air dependent on atmospheric conditions. In 
warmer weather, when the minimum amount of heat is necessary, 
the resulting temperatures and velocities of the air in the ven- 
tilating flues are less than in colder weather ; consequently the 
volume of fresh air admitted and the volume of air exhausted 
are less. 

With this understanding we should not use the average vol- 
ume necessary as a basis for estimating, but sjiould so plan the 
work that the volume of air moved in warmer weather would 
be adequate for the character of the building in which the appa- 
ratus is placed. 



CHAPTER XXI 

MECHANICAL VENTILATION AND HOT-BLAST HEATING 

Growth and Improvement 

The phenomenal growth of the various systems of hot-blast 
heating and mechanical ventilation during the past twenty-five 
years is due largely to the better understanding of those who 
plan and erect buildings as to the need of a positive system of 
heating and ventilation. Many excellent works have been pub- 
lished covering the advantages of this type of apparatus and the 
application of the various methods employed in performing the 
work. These books and papers are more or less necessarily tech- 
nical in character and, therefore, useful principally to experienced 
engineers and are intelligible only to those who have received the 
benefit of a higher education. 

While we may not be able to add to the value of what has 
already been written on the subject, we hope to so describe and 
illustrate the various methods employed that the average steam 
fitter or heating contractor will obtain an intelligent idea of the 
principles applied and the methods practiced in installing work 
of this character. 

Our thanks are due to such representative manufacturers of 
fans and ventilating apparatus as The Buffalo Forge Company, 
The B. F. Sturtevant Company, American Blower Company, 
New York Blower Company and The Massachusetts Fan Com- 
pany and the engineers employed by them for much valuable 
assistance and for permission granted to use such tables relating 
to the movement of air, etc., etc., as appear in the last chapter of 
this book. 

Experience has clearly demonstrated that mechanical heating 
and ventilation should go hand in hand, and in order that the 
cost of installation and operation may be reduced to a minimum, 

224 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 225 

thev should be considered unitedly, planned for unitedly and in- 
stalled unitedly. A system of heating and ventilating cannot be 
perfectly controlled where one part is installed independent of 
the other and without perfect control the cost of operation must 
be excessive and the results obtained be intermittent, if not a 
complete failure. 

Mechanical systems for heating and ventilating are at this 
date installed principally in buildings of large size, such as 
schools, theaters, churches, hospitals, factories, etc., and in com- 
paratively few residences. This latter condition is due undoubt- 
edly to the cost, both of apparatus and of maintenance. When 
as a people we shall have decided that we are willing to pay as 
much for health and comfort (which result from the breathing 
of pure, fresh air) as we do for the heating of our homes, then, 
without question, we shall see mechanical methods of heating and 
ventilating more generally practiced. Another influence oper- 
ating against the adoption of methods of mechanical heating and 
ventilation, which possibly has not been heretofore fully recog- 
nized, has been the antagonism of the steam-fitting trade in many 
localities to the approval and acceptance of the blower system. 
In all likelihood this situation is due to two reasons, namely (1) 
ignorance of the modes applied and the results obtained, and (2) 
the question of personal gain arising from the adoption of some 
one of the old orthodox systems of heating. 

Methods Employed 

There are two general methods practiced in supplying a 
building with heat and fresh air and in exhausting or expelling 
the foul air. These methods are known as the exhaust and ple- 
num methods. In arranging the apparatus for an exhaust sys- 
tem, the fan is placed in the main ventilating shaft or duct and 
cold or fresh air ducts lead to the heating surfaces supplying each 
room, as would be the case if indirect radiators were used. The 
entire heating surface may also be placed within a single chamber 
(brick or iron) and from this chamber the warm-air supply pipes 
connect with ducts leading to each room. Again, the heating 
surface may be direct, that is to say, direct cast-iron radiators 



226 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

or pipe coils placed under windows or at points where the inward 
leakage is the greatest. 

In action the fan produces a partial vacuum within the room. 
This results in drawing the fresh air from outside the building 
through the coils or other heating surfaces and from them into 
the various rooms. At the same time it exhausts the foul air 
through ducts provided for the purpose, which are connected 
with the main ventilating shaft. In so far as the heating and 
ventilating results are concerned, it is possible to thoroughly 
warm and ventilate a building by this method and there are a 
great many structures heated in this manner. The objections 
to this mode are that in operation the partial vacuum created 
draws all air currents inwardly through the crevices around 
doors or windows, thus often producing a draught which is dan- 
gerous to the occupants of the rooms ; also, that it is difficult 
to control a system of this character, particularly in a change- 
able climate. Again, the locations of the inlet and outlet regis- 
ters must be arranged with great care, owing to the direct course 
of the air from the inlets to the outlets, and often the conditions 
of the building (particularly if previously erected) are such that 
the ducts and openings cannot be distributed as desired. For 
these reasons this system is not now generally used; it has been 
replaced by the so-called " plenum " method. 

With the plenum method the heated air is forced into each 
room under a slight pressure and all leaks of air around doors, 
windows or other openings are outward and no perceptible 
draughts are felt or experienced by the occupants of the room. 
As the slight pressure exerted is from the source of the pure- 
air supply it is impossible for any obnoxious odors or gases to 
enter into and contaminate the air of the room. With this sys- 
tem the supply of heated air, as well as the supply of fresh air, 
or we might say the quality, quantity and temperature of the 
air are always under perfect control. 

There are several adaptations of the plenum system of heat- 
ing and ventilating. The older method employed is where the 
cold air is supplied to the fan direct from a cold-air chamber or 
cold-air duct, the fan driving it through the heater or heating 
coils into the various warm air ducts supplying the rooms of the 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 227 

building. The air may be sufficiently heated by these coils, or 
it may be driven through supplementary heaters located at the 
base of the hot-air flues and be increasingly heated before de- 
livery to the room or rooms to be warmed. Separate ducts may 
be arranged to connect the main hot-air supply with the rising 
flues, or the heated air from the coil may be discharged under 
a slight pressure into a plenum chamber with which all supply 
pipes or warm-air ducts are connected. 

Heat Losses and Heating Capacity Required 

The proportion of heat losses depends principally upon the 
construction of the building, whether of frame, stone or brick, 
the conditions of exposure, that is to say, whether standing alone 
in an isolated position or protected from chilling winds by sur- 
rounding buildings, the number and sizes of windows and the 
amount of exposed wall surface. Brick buildings lose less heat 
through walls than buildings constructed of wood or stone and 
of the three classes, the frame structure is usually less compactly 
erected and correspondingly harder to heat. The percentage of 
loss through walls of varying thicknesses has been ascertained 
with sufficient accuracy for estimating purposes, as has also been 
the percentage of heat transmission through windows (glass), 
doors, floors and ceilings. 

The use to which the building is put largely governs the 
heating capacity required. A schoolhouse or similar structure, 
built in the open and having a large proportion of exposed glass 
and wall surface, and where a certain number of changes of air 
per hour is desired, or a definite amount of fresh air per hour 
per person required, is proportionately harder to warm than 
would be a theater with its small glass exposure and usually 
well protected walls, to say nothing of the animal heat emanating 
from a large number of people closely assembled. In the latter 
type of building the matter of furnishing fresh air to replace 
that vitiated by the breaths of the individuals within the struc- 
ture, and exhausting the air so contaminated without producing 
draughts or dangerous air currents, is a problem not easily solved. 
Assembly halls, churches, hospitals, factories and other types of 
buildings present conditions of heat losses and air vitiation which 



228 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

vary according to the diversified uses to which each building is 
put ; therefore each type of building must be considered separately 
in planning the heating and ventilating of it. 

The heating capacity of the apparatus is therefore based on 
two conditions, namely, the temperature of the air necessary to 
warm the building and the volume of fresh air necessary to be 
supplied in order to maintain a given standard of purity of the 
atmosphere within the building. Reference to the table " Volume 
of Air Necessary to Maintain a Standard of Purity " given in 
the last chapter of this book will show the volume of air essential 
under certain stated conditions. 

Quality of the Air Supplied 

When a blower apparatus is placed in a building erected in a 
location where the purity of the air is unquestioned, it may be 
supplied in its natural state to the building. As a matter of 
fact, the large proportion of buildings heated and ventilated by 
mechanical methods are located in the cities, in congested dis- 
tricts, or in factory towns where the atmosphere surrounding the 
structure is contaminated by dust and soot and which, aside from 
the possibility of being more or less filled with the germs of dis- 
ease, is unfit to breathe. Again, in all buildings heated by arti- 
:ficial means, the air is deficient in moisture, the dryness being so 
apparent that it is necessary to heat the rooms to a temperature 
much higher than would be required were proper attention given 
to the quality of the air supplied. 

Proper provision for a desirable degree of moisture in the 
air supplied to a building is as necessary, indeed we may say, 
more necessary, for health of its occupants, than the heating of 
it. Proper protection in the way of clothing will prevent chill- 
ing in a structure insufficiently warmed, but there is no individual 
resource whereby a person may prevent the oppressive feeling 
resulting from the dryness or overheating of a room, causing the 
evaporation of the moisture from the body to such an extent as 
to produce irritation of the skin and other unpleasant sensations. 
One can never feel as comfortable inside a room heated to 70° 
as in the open and balmy outside air when the temperature is 
at 70°. This fact alone shows conclusively that the nearer we 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



229 



can come to maintaining a fixed standard of humidity within a 
building, the richer will be the conditions of health and comfort. 
With these circumstances provided for it is possible at times 
to breathe better air within than without an edifice, because 
the weight of moisture in the outside air is variable, as it de- 
pends upon the conditions of humidity and temperature and these 
change daily, often hourly. Prof. Kinealy states that the weight 
of moisture brought into a room per hour by air which enters 
from the outside, is equal to the number of cubic feet of air, 
measured at the outside temperature, which enters per hour, mul- 
tiplied by the weight in grains of the moisture in one cubic foot 
of air, and that the amount of moisture in one cubic foot of 
external air is obtained by multiplying its humidity by the weight 
of moisture required to saturate it at the outside temperature. 

Again, the same authority states that as it is customary in 
this country to keep the air of the rooms at 70°, and to assume 
that the volume of the air supplied for ventilation is measured 
at 70°, the following table has been calculated to show the weight 
of moisture in one cubic foot of air at 70°, when the air is taken 
in a saturated condition at different outside temperatures and 
heated to 70°. 

TABLE XXV 



Temperature of Saturated 
Outside Air. 


Weight of Vapor in One 

Cubic Foot of Air when 

Temperature is Raised to 

70 Degrees. 


Humidity of Air when Heated 
to 70 Degrees. 





0.G8 


8.5 


10 


0.98 


12.3 


20 


1.43 


17.9 


30 


2.04 


25.5 


40 


2.92 


36.5 


50 


4 . 13 


51.6 


60 


5.76 


72.0 



An Ideal System 

The ideal system of mechanical heating and ventilation must, 
therefore, be the system which will not only properly warm a 
building, but which will at the same time expel the foul air in 
such quantities as to thoroughly remove all excess carbonic-acid 



230 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

gas and all poisons of respiration from the atmosphere within 
the building and replace the air expelled with air which has been 
washed of its soot, dirt and germs and moistened to such a degree 
as will insure healthfulness and comfort to the occupants. Fur- 
ther, the ideal system is one which is always under perfect con- 
trol, giving certain definite results within a minimum cost of 
maintenance. Our readers may ask if all this is possible, to which 
we reply : Yes, not only possible, but further, that systems of 
this character are now in constant use. Installations of this kind 
are known as the " double-duct system " or more familiarly as 
the " hot and cold system." The reason for these appellations 
is shown in the following descriptions of apparatus. 

Taking the modern school or public building for illustration, 
Fig. 204 shows a system of this kind as designed by the Buffalo 
Forge Company. The fan, heaters and air ducts are arranged 
in the usual manner. The tempering coils are located nearest 
to the fresh-air inlet and are of sufficient capacity to maintain 
any temperature desired up to 70° or 80°. The coils are spe- 
cially constructed to admit of temperature regulation by hand, 
or the temperature in the spray or humidifying chamber may be 
automatically controlled by means of a by-pass damper under 
tempering coils. At one end of the spray chamber are located 
the spray nozzles. These- are made of brass and are of simple 
construction, practically atomizing the water and distributing 
it uniformly throughout the chamber, the discharge being par- 
allel to the air currents. At the opposite end of the chamber is 
located the eliminator or separator, which removes all free par- 
ticles of moisture from the air before it enters the fan which 
draws the air direct from the humidifying chamber through the 
eliminator. The air thus cleansed and moistened is then dis- 
charged through the coils of the heater into the plenum chamber 
from which the various ducts supplying the building are taken. 

Reference to Fig. 205 (which is an elevation plan of an appa- 
ratus designed for the Carnegie Library at St. Louis, Mo.) will 
show that the entire volume of air from the fan may be delivered 
through the heater, or a portion of it may be passed around the 
heater through the by-pass shown and mixed with the hot air 
in such quantities as desired or necessary to maintain a given 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



231 




232 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



233 



temperature within the building. Thermostatic control at the 
mixing dampers for each room is an essential and special feature 
for a system of this character. 

It may be well to state that the water for the sprays may 
be furnished from city pressure. The most economical method, 
however, is to use the water continuously until it is unfit for 
further use. This is achieved by draining the water separated 
from the air by the eliminator into a well, from which it is 





Fig. 206. — Wire screen for cleansino: air. 



pumped by a centrifugal pump and delivered again to the spray 
system. This pump may be direct connected or driven by belt 
from the fan, or a separate motor. 

Air cleansing and humidifying may be secured by several 
methods. For cleaning it of soot and dust, the air may be passed 
through a fine wire screen similar to that shown by Fig. 206. 
Originally cheese cloth stretched over wooden frames was used. 
These frames were made removable, to be replaced when clogged 
with dirt. 



^34 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Coke washing and purifying seems to be a very good method 
of removing dust and dirt and at the same time moistening the 
air. The coke is placed on shelving within a wire cage, through 




i 

2 
o 
u 



which the air is passed on its way to the fan. At the top of the 
cage the water supply is placed. The water is allowed to trickle 
down over and through the coke, while the air passing through 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



235 




I 
i 



2S6 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



at right angles is purified and moistened. Fig. 207 shows a per- 
spective section of a school with heater, fan, coke washer, etc., as 
installed by the American Blower Company. The fresh air enters 




-c3 

3 
O 



the building in the usual manner, through a screened opening in 
basement wall, passes through tempering coils, or direct through 
by-pass under the coils, to the coke washer and from here to the 
fan. 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 237 

It is delivered to the heater or passed around it in the usual 
manner and under thermostatic control is admitted to the vari- 
ous rooms through ducts leading out of the plenum chamber. 

Quite similar is the apparatus of the New York Blower Com- 
pany, as illustrated by Fig. 208. 

As conditions of area, location, etc., largely govern the char- 
acter of the apparatus installed, each particular building must 
be separately considered and this fact is responsible in no small 
degree for the many arrangements and designs of the blower 
system. 

One of the many Sturtevant methods is shown by illustration 
Fig. 209. It is a three-quarter housing pulley fan with blow- 
through heater for the " hot-and-cold " or " double-duct " sys- 
tem. An apparatus of this kind is used on work where space is 
limited, or where the space allotted is in such form as to preclude 
the placing of apparatus of the ordinary form with moistening 
chamber and tempering coils. The outlet from the heater may be 
made to discharge directly outward from the end, or upward or 
downward in either direction. In fact, the ' methods of setting 
and housing of the fan, whether a steam fan or operated by a 
pulley, are such as may be adapted for any special form of 
installation. 

A typical apparatus for heating and ventilating a school is 
shown by the small basement plan Fig. 210. In this case the 
fan discharges in opposite directions through separate heaters 
to the right and to the left into separate plenum chambers, as 
shown. This arrangement of the apparatus is particularly com- 
mendable owing to the centralizing of the fan and heaters and 
the direct delivery of the warm air. One engineer summarizes 
the features of this system as follows : 

" The entire heating surface is centrally located, inclosed 
within a fireproof casing, and placed under the control of a single 
individual, thereby avoiding the possibility of damage by leakage 
or freezing incident to a scattered system of steam piping and 
radiators. The heater itself is adapted for the use of either 
exhaust or live steam, and provision is made for utilizing the 
exhaust of the fan engine, thereby reducing the cost of operation 
(of the fan) to practically nothing. At all times ample and 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



positive ventilation may be provided with air tempered to the 
desired degree. Absokite control may be had over the quality 
and quantity of air supplied. It may he -filtered, cleansed, heated 




Fig. 210. — A typical method for schools. 

or cooled, dried or moistened at will. By means of the hot and 
cold system, the temperature of the air admitted to any given 
apartment may be instantly and radically changed without the 
employment of supplementary heating surface." 



Fans for Blowing and Exhausting 

For exhaust ventilation and the removal of smoke, obnoxious 
gases, etc., from factories or other buildings, the regular forms 
of fan wheels used are of the disc or the cone type. Fans of 
this character are lightly constructed, are easily installed and 
require but little power to operate when run at low speed. 

The Cone type of peripheral discharge, without any casing 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 239 

whatever, is thought to give the highest efficiency. They are said 
to produce better results in volume of air moved than could be 
secured by the use of the ordinary type of disc fan with straight 
blades. 

The fan may be driven by a direct-connected motor, as shown 
by Fig. 211, or may be pulley driven, as shown by Fig. 212. 
These illustrations also show the manner of setting or installa- 
tion. This type of fan is frequently used in the main vent shaft 
of a church, school or similar building in place of an aspirating 
coil where " assisted ventilation " is necessary. 

The centrifugal fan wheel illustrated by Fig. 213 is the type 
of steel-plate fan as used in all blowers whether the housings are 
made of steel, brick or wood. There are several adaptations of 
this type of steel-plate fan, which space will not allow us to 
illustrate or describe. The blades may be curved or they may be 
bent backward to avoid noise. Various manufacturers have vary- 
ing ideas of efficiency and forms of construction. The fans illus- 
trated may be considered as representative of the several types. 

The propeller or disc fan, as the name implies, propels the 
air forward by impact and centrifugal force and is efficient for 
moving large bodies of air under slight resistance. For driving 
air through heaters and long pipes or ducts, or delivering a fixed 
volume of air in a stated period or under great resistance, the 
type of fan wheel illustrated by Fig. 213 is now almost universally 
employed. 

Types of Heaters 

There are several types of heaters as used for mechanical or 
hot-blast heating and ventilation. The form of the heater em- 
ployed depends largely upon the character of work to be per- 
formed and the space to be occupied for its installation. Different 
requirements demand different heaters and it would be hard to 
select one make or type of a heater which could always be adopted. 
Again, the size and shape of the heater depend upon the extent or 
number of degrees the air is to be heated, the volume of air passed 
by the fan and the steam pressure available. As a rule, the heater 
installed for this class of work takes the form of what might be 
designated as a " set " or " group " of steam coils made from 



240 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 





Fig. 211.— Ventilating fan with direct- 
connected motor. 



Fig. 213.— Type of steel plate 
fan. 




Fig. 212. — Pulley-driven ventilating fan. 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



241 



wrought-iron pipe, usually 1" in diameter and screwed into cast- 
iron bases of various forms, composing sections, the sections being 
then assembled in groups of two or more, according to the needs 
of the work. 

The Sturtevant mitre t3^pe of heater is illustrated by Fig. 
214. Steam is admitted at the top of the inlet header or section 
and the condensation removed at the end of the outlet section, 
each of the sections having an independent feed and drip. 

The regular Sturtevant type of heater and the construction 
of the base are shoAvn by Fig. 215. In this type of heater (made 




Fig. 214. — Sturtevant mitre type of heater. 

also of 1" pipe) the pipes are set ^Y^' on centers, providing a 
free area for passage of air equal to about 40^ of the full area 
of the face of the section. The arrangement of the interior of 
the cast-iron base and the division partition or diaphragm are 
clearly shown by the illustration. The steam enters the upper 
part of the base and feeds one end of the various pipe loops, pass- 
ing upward and across the top and down the opposite side of the 
loop, the condensation entering the lower division of each header, 
from which it passes to the return drip. 

The headers or bases are made to accommodate either two or 
four rows of pipe, and the compactness of the heating surface is 
shown by the fact that within a space of 6 feet in length, 7 feet in 



242 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



height, and 7^/2 inches deep, nearly 1,000 lineal feet of pipe may 
be massed. 

The Buffalo Manifold Heater is illustrated by Figs. 216 and 




Fig. 215. — Sturtevant heater and base. 
217, and the Mitre Coil Heater by Figs. 218 and 219. The Buf- 
falo Manifold Heater is particularly efficient due to the pecuhar 
form of the heater base. 





Fig. 21G. — Buffalo heater showing 
connections. 



Fig. 217. — Buffalo heater showing 
base. 



The heaters of the American Blower Company and of the New 
York Blower Company take the usual form in construction, but 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



differ in the arrangement of the heater bases. The A. B. C. heater 
base is divided lengthwise by a diaphragm," the flow entering from 
one side of the partition, the return passing through the chamber 
on the opposite side of the partition. The form of the New York 
heater base is shown by illustration Fig. 220, which also shows 
this particular heater with a part of the casing removed. Fig. 221 
shows the A. B. C. Heater complete ready for the casing. 

The regular form of cast-iron indirect sections may be used in 
connection with the blower system for heating and ventilating 
schools, churches or buildings where it is not necessary to heat the 





Fig. 



218. — Buffalo mitre type 
of heater. 



Fig. 219. — Assembling of mitre 
type of heater. 



air to a very high temperature. A hot-air chamber is provided 
in the basement and the indirect sections assembled into stacks and 
arranged in two, three, four or more tiers, as occasion demands. 
Each tier is supported on I beams or railroad rails. There are 
also special forms of cast-iron sections available for use with a 
blower apparatus. 

The fact of so large a heating surface being contained within 
a comparatively small space, as with an}^ one of the heaters men- 
tioned and illustrated, and the further truth that but one fifth of 
the surface ordinarily required for direct heating is necessary for 
the hot-blast system, are points of economy worthy of serious con- 
sideration. To these advantages we may add efficiency of service, 



244 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



as it is conceded that, owing to the rapid movement of the air over 
the heating surfaces, they become three times more efficient than 
heating surfaces in comparatively still air, as in the case of direct 
radiation. 




Fig. 220. — New York heater showing construction of base. 

One point in heater construction we wish to make plain. The 
heater may be so valved and connected that certain sections may 
be used for live steam, certain sections for exhaust steam from an 
engine-driven fan or other source, or all of the sections may be 
used for live or exhaust steam as the case may demand. 

Methods of Driving Fans 
The method of driving fans for ventilating or for a combined 
system of heating and ventilation includes a detail of construction 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



M5 



unnecessary to discuss at length. In so far as efficiency is con- 
cerned, fans of all types may be driven by electricity (a direct 
connected or independent motor) or by steam. 

It frequently happens that fans are installed in positions where 
electric power is available and where it would be inconvenient to 
use an engine. In such a situation an electric-driven fan with 
motor directly attached is without doubt the most suitable and 
economical. Again, when a fan is ijsed to accelerate the movement 
of air in a ventilating shaft or duct, it is easy to install an electric- 




FiG. 221. — A. B. C. heater ready for casing. 

driven fan, which may be started, stopped and controlled from 
a switch located in a convenient position for the attendant's use. 
The motor used should be independent, that is, should be used for 
no other purpose than that of driving the fan. An engine-driven 
fan in an instance of this kind would not be desirable. For an 
apparatus used for heating and ventilating, such as described in 
the preceding pages of this book, an engine-driven fan is no doubt 
the best and most economical. 

The heater connections are so arranged that the exhaust from 



246 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



the engine driving the fan may be employed for heating purposes 
and as this exhaust has probably 95^ of its original value in heat 
units, the cost of driving the fan is reduced to practically nothing. 
The requirements for an engine of this kind are lightness of weight 
and freedom from noise and vibration when run at high speed. 




Fig. 222.— Type of A. B. C. vertical 
engine. 



Fig. 223.— Showing A. B. C. self- 
lubricating device. 



Simplicity and reliability are at all times essential. Fig. 222 shows 
one of the many types of the A. B. C. engine. It is for low pres- 
sure and of the vertical type, inclosed to keep the parts free from 
dust and dirt, and self-oiling or automatic. An interior view 
showing the mechanism of the self-lubricating system is shown 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



Ml 




Fig. 224. — The Sturtevant horizontal engine. 




Fig. 225. — The Sturtevant double upright engine. 



248 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

by Fig. 223. When used in connection with a heating and ven- 
tilating apparatus, such as would be required for a school or simi- 
lar building, it is desirable that a pressure of not more than 30 lbs. 
be carried ; therefore the engine must be supplied with large cylin- 
ders in order that the required power may be produced. 

Fig. 224 shows a horizontal engine of this kind. When located 
where there is more or less dust in the atmosphere an engine of the 
vertical, inclosed type is more desirable. The double-upright or 
vertical inclosed engine illustrated by Fig. 225 represents another 
type of engine specially designed for this class of work. 

Some Details of Construction 

The following details of Sturtevant methods are typical of 
those in use on blower system construction. 

The planning of a mechanical system of heating and ventila- 
tion, the determining of the size of each portion of the apparatus 





Fig. 226.- 



-Form of elbow for hot-air 
duct. 



Fig. 227. — Manner of reduc- 
ing size of air duct. 



and the ordinary details of construction should be left with an en- 
gineer whose experience at work of this character qualifies him to 
handle it accurately and competently. There are some few de- 
tails of construction with which we should become thoroughly 
familiar. 

From illustrations and descriptions given on the preceding 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



M9 



pages we should have a good understanding of the methods of 
placing the mechanical portion of the apparatus, arrangement of 
air chambers, moistening apparatus and eliminators. 

The flues, which should be built in the walls as the construction 
of the building progresses, should, if possible, be tile-lined. If 
not tile-lined, they should be plastered smooth. The ducts (the 
name given to all horizontal air passages) are usually made of 
galvanized iron, although in many instances it is necessary to run 
a portion of them underground, in which cases they should be 
constructed of brick or tiling. Sudden turns or angles in the ducts 
should be avoided. In making a 90° angle turn, the elbow should 




Fig. 228. — Iron duct construction. 



be built with as large a sweep as possible. Illustration Fig. 226 
shows the proper construction of the elbow. 

An abrupt reduction in the size of the diameter of the pipe 
should be avoided ; all unnecessary friction is eliminated by a grad- 
ual diminution of the pipe size. This is illustrated by Fig. 227, 
whereby we show the manner in which a small pipe should be taken 
from a main duct. 

Fig. 228 shows the method of constructing an iron duct and 
by Fig. 229 we illustrate the method of constructing a brick duct 
when it is essential for a portion of the air supply to turn at right 
angles, the remaining quantity continuing in the same direction. 

The movements of air and water are in many respects quite 
similar. The same methods employed for the elimination of fric- 



250 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

tion from the pipes conveying water may be used with good re- 
sults in conducting air. This is very clearly illustrated by the use 
of a double elbow when it is necessary to divide the supply, send- 
ing a portion of it in either direction. 

The proper arrangement of ducts and dampers has much to 
do with the success or failure of an apparatus of this character. 
Two ducts, one convejdng the hot air, the other conveying the cold 
air, are run to the base of the flue supplying a room. It is under- 
stood that each room should have an independent supply. Mixing 
dampers are placed where the hot air and cold air enter the flue. 







Fig. 229. — Brick duct construction. 



Fig. 230 shows an arrangement of a damper of this character and 
the method of operating the damper from within the room. While 
this mode is extensively used, nevertheless it is open to some objec- 
tions. The air currents strike squarely against the damper plate, 
causing considerable friction. The Sturtevant method is commend- 
able and is clearly illustrated by Fig. 231 and Fig. 232. As the 
damper is cylindrical in form it allows the air to mix in proper 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



251 



quantities at the will of the operator and without friction. The dial 
placed within each room and the chain attachment are shown by 
Fig. 233. These dampers may be manipulated by a thermostat. 
This arrangement we will show in a later chapter. 

The screen or register opening for the entering air should be 
placed at a point about two thirds the height of the ceiling and 




Fig. 230. — Type of mixing damper. 



in such a part of the room as will insure the complete distribution 
of the air. Frequently the proper location may not be utilized, 
due to the particular construction of the building and it, there- 
fore, becomes necessary to assist the distribution of the air in cer- 
tain directions. This is accomplished by means of a diffuser placed 



252 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

over the face of the register, as shown by Fig. 234. This appH- 
ance breaks up the volume of air admitted, deflecting it into sep- 
arate currents and thereby more effectually warming the room. 




Fig. 231. — Stiirtevant mixing 
damper. 




Fig. 232. — Sturtevant mixing damper 
showing chain for operating. 



:xM&^^iBi^i^^t^' ■ 




Fig. 233. — Enlarged view of dial 
and chain. 



Fig. 234. — ^Diffuser placed over 
register face. 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 253 

Factory Heating 

Before the fan and blower came into general use the problem of 
satisfactorily heating and ventilating factories of any considerable 
size, was often a vexatious one and the results as often obtained 
were far from being efficient or desirable. The use of fans for 
exhausting the foul air, smoke or gases incident to the manufac- 
turing of some classes of products, and for forcing the distribution 
of heated air has revolutionized the methods of factory heating and 
now definite results and efficiency are assured. 

The exhaust type of fan as illustrated by Fig. 211 and Fig. 
212 may be employed with successful results in the removal of 
foul air and gases and for heating a blower fan and pipe heater 
arranged for use of all available exhaust steam may be utilized. 

Probably the most simple and the easiest type of factory build- 
ing to heat and ventilate is the one-story building. They are usu- 
ally sparsely occupied and the amount of floor space devoted to the 
use of each employe is considerably larger than the space per 
capita in offices or public buildings ; therefore, the ordinary ven- 
tilation of the building is not a difficult matter. On the contrary, 
with regard to heating, the customary factory structure is well 
lighted by many windows and not only presents large exposed 
wall surface to the action of the wind and weather, but also from 
the form of its construction has a very large loss of heat or leak- 
age through the roof. 

In a building where the process of manufacturing does not 
fill the air with poisonous gases, the fan may be supplied with air 
from within the building. Therefore, the loss of heat is only that 
wasted by leakage, the air being turned over and over and heated 
to the necessary degree of temperature to allow for heat losses 
through windows, walls and roof. The fan and heater should be 
centrally located in order that an even distribution of the heat may 
be secured throughout the building. The air is carried around 
the building in galvanized pipes and distributed through openings 
located at intervals in the piping. Fig. 235 shows an adaptation 
of this method and is the type of an apparatus designed by the 
Sturtevant Company. 

When a factory building of more than one story in height is 



254 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

in process of erection, flues for the distribution of the heated air 
may be built up through the pilasters and thus not engage any. 
space within the building. The heated air may be supphed to these 
flues through a brick underground duct or through an iron duct 
located in the basement. For certain classes of mills or factories 
this method is preferable above all others. 

Where a blower system is installed in an old factory structure, 
the most simple form of air distribution is by a galvanized iron 
stand pipe, as shown by Fig. 236. The openings for each floor 
may be made in the manner shown, or the piping on each floor car- 
ried to a central point, the distribution there taking place. 




Fig. 235. — Sturtevant method of factory beating. 

In one sense the heating of factories in this manner far excels 
all other methods. The moving belting, shafting and machinery 
all tend to break up the currents of air and assist in its distribu- 
tion, and the further fact that the operatives in a large percentage 
of all factories are on their feet and moving about, are not as 
susceptible to draughts or air currents as would be the case 
in a factory where the employes were continually sitting or re- 
mained inactive. This circumstance renders the location of air 
outlets and the installation of blower systems a comparatively 
easy task. 

The shape and size of the building and the usage to which it is 
put are factors which largely govern the form of the apparatus 
and the method of installation. 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



^55 



Relative Cost of Installation and Operation 

No direct comparison between the cost of installing a fan or 
blower system and any one of the other methods of heating, viz., 




Fig. 236. — Another form of factory heating. 

furnaces, steam or hot water, can well be made, as the cost of a 
blower system increases or decreases according to the rates of air 



256 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

change demanded, that is, the number of times per hour, the air 
within each room shall be changed; in other words, according to 
the size of the apparatus and not necessarily according to the size 
of the building. On the contrary, the cost of a direct or indirect 
system of heating, steam or hot water, without ventilation, increases 
in proportion to the size of the building and the added cost for ven- 
tilation may be much or little, corresponding to the amount of 
ventilation or air changes secured. 

It has been suggested that as a people we will not tolerate cold 
rooms, but that we will tolerate a vitiated atmosphere, to which 
we would add that such toleration on the part of the owners of 
many buildings is carried to such an extent that the buildings fre- 
quently are unsanitary and unhealthy, conditions which are reme- 
died only when pressure is brought to bear upon the owner. 
It is probable that the cost of installing an indirect system of heat- 
ing with " assisted " ventilation is in excess of the cost of the 
blower system when the volume of air moved is considered. 

The cost of operation, labor of attention required and expense 
for fuel for the blower system of heating are not very much in 
excess of the cost of operating other systems. Our public schools, 
a class of buildings, many of them quite similar in arrangement 
and design, the rooms averaging 30' X 36' in size and from 12 to 
14 feet high, and provided for the use of from fifty to sixty schol- 
ars, form a very good basis for comparison as to expense of main- 
tenance (labor and fuel) for the heating and ventilating appara- 
tus. Carefully preserved records show some interesting data. The 
cost for mechanical heating and ventilation for a school building 
of, say, twenty rooms is less per room than for an eight or ten 
room school. Where furnaces are used there is very little difference 
in the cost of labor of attendance, or for fuel per room. 

The records of one city show a comparison of costs, as fol- 
lows : For five schools provided with a fan and direct and indirect 
system the cost per room for attendance averaged $62.00 and for 
fuel $71.00. For six schools provided with a direct and indirect 
system (assisted ventilation) the cost per room for attendance 
averaged $61.00 and for fuel $70.00. For twelve schools with fur- 
nace heat and ventilation the attendance averaged $52.00 per room 
and the fuel $72.00. For two schools heated with a direct steam 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 257 

apparatus (no ventilation) the cost of attendance averaged $58.00 
per room and fuel $45.00. 

Upon comparing the figures we find that the fuel bill for heat 
without ventilation averaged $45.00, or $27.00 per room less than 
for furnaces with the amount of ventilation they provided ; $25.00 
less than for direct and indirect heating and assisted ventilation 
and $26.00 less than for the fan system of ventilation with direct 
and indirect heating. Thus the cost of ventilation approximated 
$25.00, $26.00 or $27.00 per room for fuel, with attendance cost- 
ing but a very little more than for direct steam and no ventilation, 
and there seems to be no question but what those schools equipped 
with a fan were better ventilated than any of the others. 

Many other comparisons show the expense for fuel with a me- 
chanical ventilating apparatus to be less than that incurred wdth 
furnaces, while the cost of attendance, due to more skillful labor 
demanded, wa^s approximately one third greater than for the at- 
tendance given the furnaces. 

Another item of interest in the comparison of tests shows that 
year by year the expense of maintenance for the mechanical sys- 
tems remained very nearly the same, while the figures furnished 
for furnaces and other systems vary largely. 

An average of all records at hand reveals that the actual cost 
of heating is less for the blower system than for other methods, and 
that whatever further increase in cost is shown is phargeable to 
the ventilating portion of the apparatus, this increase being much 
or little in proportion to the quantity and quality of the air pro- 
vided for ventilation. 

Apparatus for Testing Systems of Heating and Ventilation 

In order to make a test of any mechanical apparatus it is 
necessary that instruments of absolute and positive accuracy be 
used in making and recording the test. This is particularly true 
in testing systems of mechanical heating and ventilation, as re- 
gards temperature of steam or highly heated air, the velocity and 
the amount of moisture or humidity in the air under varying 
conditions. 

A type of thermometer for conducting a test at high tem- 
peratures is illustrated by Fig. 237. This consists of a high- 



258 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

grade thermometer, the tube of which is inclosed in a brass casing. 
The thread at the bottom is a standard-pipe thread and can be 
screwed into any ordinary fitting. As shown by the illustration, 
the bulb extends well down into the opening into which it is 




Fig. 238. — Anemometer. 



Fig. 237. — High-temperature thermometer. 

screwed in order to insure that the reading on the instrument 
scale will be accurate. The bulb is protected by a section of thin 
brass pipe as shown. 

The movement or velocity of air through ducts or openings 
may be readily determined by the anemometer, or air meter, as 
shown by Fig. 238. The indications are obtained by the revo- 
lution of a series of fans, acting first on a long hand, capable 
of recording the low velocity of fifty feet per minute on a large 
dial divided to 100 feet, and then successively by a train of 
wheels on the indices of five smaller dials, each divided into ten 
parts, and recording respectively 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 and 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 



259 



10,000,000 feet or 1,894 miles, an amount found to be more than 
adequate to the most protracted observations. A disconnection is 
provided on the rim of the instrument, which sets the recording 
hands in or out of gear without influencing the uniform rotation 
of the fans. The velocity recorded by the anemometer multiplied 




Fig. 239. — Wet-bulb hygrometer. 

by the area of the air pipe or orifice through which the air is 
moving will give the. total volume of air passing. 

An instrument for noting the percentage of saturation of the 
air (humidity) is called a Hygrometer and is illustrated by Fig. 



260 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

239. Various forms of this instrument have been devised; that 
shown by the illustration is a standard type. 

The atmosphere surrounding us is seldom dry or completely 
saturated with moisture and the amount of aqueous vapor held in 
suspension is very changeable. This fact bears an important 
part when considering the hygienic qualities of the atmosphere. 
As we have already noted, a certain amount of moisture in the 
air is essential to good health and the importance of maintaining 
the proper proportion of moisture in the atmosphere within our 
homes and public buildings we have commented upon in a former 
chapter of this book. Particularly is this true in hospitals or 
in the sick chamber. 

In speaking of the humidity in the air we hear much of the 
" dew point." Dew is formed by the radiation of heat from the 
surfaces of trees, plants, etc., consequently reducing the tempera- 
ture of the air near the immediate surfaces of such objects to 
the point of complete saturation, causing moisture to be deposited. 

With a complete heating and ventilating apparatus, that is, 
with an air heating, cleansing and moistening apparatus, any kind 
of climate may be produced and is registered or recorded by the 
Hygrometer. The Hygrometer has two thermometers — a " dry " 
thermometer and a " wet " thermometer, as indicated by the illus- 
tration. These are mounted on the face of the instrument. The 
bulb of the dry thermometer is exposed to the air ; the bulb of 
the wet thermometer is surrounded by a piece of silk, cotton or 
wick. As evaporation causes a loss of heat, the thermometer 
with the wet bulb will read lower than the other, provided there 
is any degree of dryness in the air. When the air is very dry 
the difference of register between the two thermometers will be 
great, the variation lessening according to the degree of moisture 
in the air, until at complete saturation both will read alike, as 
then there can be no evaporation. To use the hygrometer the 
wet bulb and attached wicking should be thoroughly saturated 
with water. The small reservoir under the wet bulb should be 
filled with water and the loose end of the wicking should dip into 
it. As fast as the water evaporates from the wet wicking cover- 
ing the bulb, it will draw its supply from the reservoir by capil- 
lary action of the wick and so keep the bulb constantly wet. 



MECHANICAL VENTILATION 261 

Having prepared the hygrometer for work, expose it in the 
atmosphere to be tested for a period of fifteen or twenty minutes. 
Then note the readings of both thermometers, the dry and wet 
bulbs. Ascertain the number of degrees difference by subtraction. 
In the center of the instrument is a cyhnder with a knob at the 
top for turning by hand, upon which is inscribed a series of col- 
umns of figures numbered at their headings from 1 to 22. These 
numbers represent the difference in the readings of the wet bulb 
and dry bulb thermometers and the columns show the relative 
humidity or percentage of moisture in the air for every degree 
of temperature indicated by the thermometers. Having ascer- 
tained the number of degrees difference in the reading of the 
thermometers, turn the knob of the cylinder until this number 
is exposed at the top of the column and opposite the opening in 
front and in line with the reading of the wet bulb thermometer. 
On the scale of the cylinder will be found the number representing 
the percentage of humidity in the atmosphere, absolute saturation 
being 100°. 

Various forms of siphon gauges for water or mercury are 
manufactured for indicating vacuum or pressure. These are pro- 
vided with couplings for attaching to pipe or reservoir, the pres- 
sure or vacuum being shown by the difference in the level of the 
liquid in the two arms of the glass siphon. 



CHAPTER XXII 

Steam Appliances 

The appliances used in connection with a steam boiler for 
power or heating purposes are many and varied in character. 
Steam Traps for removing the water of condensation without 
waste of steam, Separators for removing oil and other impurities 
from the water within the apparatus, or the water held in sus- 
pension in saturated steam. Steam Pumps, Inspirators, Injectors, 
Boiler Feeders and Return Traps for returning the water of 
condensation or feed water to the boiler against whatever pressure 
is used. Mechanical Apparatus for automatically controlling the 
draught, Pump Governors and Feed-water Heaters, etc., all have 
their separate and several offices to perform. 

While our work has to do only with boilers as used for heat- 
ing and ventilation, the same conditions of handling the water of 
condensation, regulation of pressures and separation of impuri- 
ties apply as to a boiler used for power purposes. 

These steam specialties are so numerous and different in char- 
acter that we can illustrate but few of them, mention the salient 
features of each and discuss with our readers their work in con- 
nection with a power or heating apparatus. 

Steam Traps 

Steam traps are of two general kinds or classes : Those used 
to separate the water from and thereby relieve steam pipes or 
heating surfaces, and those used for returning to the boiler the 
water of condensation from the steam employed for heating or for 
mechanical purposes. 

In the first division there are many kinds : Expansion traps, 
whose action depends upon the difference in the expansion of two 
metals, such as the Heintz Trap, Fig. 240 and the Kieley Canti- 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



lever Expansion Trap, Fig. 241 : Bucket or " Pot " Traps con- 
structed with a hollow metal bucket inside the trap, which, when 




vT^^^W^ 



Fig. 240.— Heintz trap. 




Fig. 241. — Kieley cantilever expansion trap. 




filled with the return water, opens a valve, allowing the trap to 
operate and the bucket to empty. A trap of this character is 





Fig. 243. — Nason bucket 
trap. 



Fig. 242. — Albany bucket trap. 



shown by Fig. 242, which illustrates the Albany Trap, and Fig. 
243 which illustrates a trap of the familiar Nason type. 



264 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The Kieley Special Trap, shown by Fig. 244* is not unhke 
the others in the principle of making use of a metal bucket. It 




Fig. 244. — Kieley special trap. 

has, however, a special form of valve — a balanced or double- 
seated valve, giving it an extremely large capacity for handling 
rapid condensation, as in a low-pressure heating apparatus. 



"H^v 



CUTLET 




IMLEU 



Fig. 245. — Wright emergency trap. 

The float type of trap has many adherents. The Wright 
Emergency Trap, as illustrated by Fig. 245, is a particularly 



STEAM APPLIANCES ^65 

good representation of this type of trap, the illustration being 
so clear as to require almost no explanation. The condensation 
enters the trap through the inlet opening and fills the pot some- 
what more than half of its height, when the copper float rises, 
opening the discharge valves (of which there are three) at the 
top of the trap. Note by the small detail of the valve shown on 
the left of the illustration that the points of the three valve stems 
are set at varying heights. The center valve is the one in regular 
operation. Should a rush of water enter the trap, the float will 
quickly rise, the arms at the bottom engaging the rods on either 
side cnnecting with the valve stems, thus allowing the three valves 
to act in unison while the rush of water continues. 




Fig. 246. — Standard ball float trap. 

Another of this type of trap is shown by illustration Fig. S46, 
which is the Standard Ball Float Trap, the operation of which is 
quite similar to that already described, excepting that it has but 
one valve. 

Other traps combining the float principle with the balanced 
valve, or with the expansion feature are manufactured, as are also 
others making use of the expansion and contraction of some chemi- 
cal or sensitive liquid. Those illustrated, however, may be con- 
sidered as representative types of traps employing the principles 
described. 

The open trap discharging into the atmosphere, or against 
slight pressure was invented by Mr. Joseph Nason, a heating 



W6 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

engineer and contractor of New York, and the original Nason 
Trap was quite similar to those of the same name in use at the 
present time. 

Eeturn Traps 

The returning of the water of condensation to a boiler on 
which the pressure is much greater than on the return pipes pre- 
sents an altogether different problem from that of drawing the 
water from a system without the loss of steam. To Mr. Jas. H. 
Blessing, of Albany, is due the credit for the first successful 
efforts in this direction. Circumstances arising with regard to 
the heating of the factory of Townsend & Jackson, known as the 
Townsend Furnace & Machine Works, by whom Mr. Blessing was 
employed as superintendent, made it necessary to return the water 
of condensation to the boiler by some other means than gravity. 
Mr. Blessing tells some interesting facts regarding this. He 
says : 

" During the j^ear 1870 the proprietors of the Townsend 
works deemed it best to remove their establishment down to the 
river front. As the area of the new works was to be considerably 
greater than that of the old, it was necessary to make some 
changes in the heating system. I concluded to use the exhaust 
steam for heating the foundry and part of the upper floors, and 
to heat the offices, machine and pattern shops with direct steam 
taken from a boiler to be specially installed for that purpose. 
I intended that the boiler should be set in a pit so that the water 
of condensation from the heating system of the lower floors 
would gravitate into it. After having settled on this plan, be- 
lieving it to be all right, I arranged with a contractor to remove 
as much as possible of the old heating system and replace it in 
the new works and to furnish all the extra pipe and fittings neces- 
sary to complete the system as I had planned it. After arrang- 
ing with the contractor I paid very little attention to the matter 
as we had over a hundred men employed in the different shops 
and my time and attention were fully occupied with the details 
of the business and the removal of the works. Therefore, I did 
not discover the gross error I had made until after nearly all 
the work was done, with the exception of the setting of the boiler. 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



267 



You can imagine my position, after explaining to my employers 
what a simple and effective plan I had devised for the return of 
the water of condensation back to the boiler, when I learned how 
impracticable it was to place the boiler low enough to have the 
water from the lower floors gravitate into it, owing to the fact 
that each tide caused the level of the water in the river to rise 
higher than the fire box of the boiler. In order to overcome 
this condition it would be necessary to set the boiler in a tank 
anchored to prevent its floating. 

" This would have been very expensive and, under the circum- 
stances, impossible. 

" After having discovered the character of the problem that 
confronted me, my first thought was to secure a trap that would 




Fig. '247. — Early type of Albany return trap. 

return the water of condensation to the boiler without the aid 
of pumps. After making a thorough inquiry, I failed to learn 
of any such device. 

" In an effort to solve the problem presented, my mind turned 
naturally to the thought of returning the water of condensation 
to the boiler by gravity, and my first experiments were all in that 
direction. My first return-steam traps, invented during the year 
1871, Fig. 247, were placed above the water level in the boiler, 
the steam being taken from the steam space of the boiler and 
acting upon the upper side of a diaphragm contained withm the 



268 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

trap and intended for equalizing the pressures. This diaphragm 
acted simply as a dividing wall between the water on the one side 
and the steam on the other. The steam used for each discharge 
of water from the trap was, as in the case of a steam pump, ex- 
hausted to the atmosphere. Although the diaphragm trap was 
successful in its operation, yet it failed to return all of the water 
and did not make up for the error I had made. 

" In my experiments with the diaphragm trap several inter- 
esting facts came to light. Among other things, I discovered 
that the inlet pipe for conveying the water of condensation ta 
the trap receiver from the coils contained steam and water, for, 
after the first condensation, due to the extra amount of steam 
condensed when steam was first let into the heating apparatus, 
was worked off by a few rapid discharges of the trap, it would 
require several minutes to collect water enough to again fill the 
trap. While this was filling up one could hear the inlet check 
valve on the inlet pipe rattling on its seat, caused by the water 
and steam passing through it. As a result of this observation 
and the experiments I had been making, it occurred to me that 
after all the coils and radiators were only a part of the direct 
steam pipe that conveyed the steam from the boiler through them 
and finally terminated in the small pipes used for collecting the 
water of condensation. 

" If this smaller return pipe were connected, so I reasoned, to 
the top of a vessel of proper size placed a certain distance above 
the water level of the boiler, the water and steam would pass 
over into such receiver, the water falling to the bottom and sepa- 
rating itself from the steam. The steam pressure in the receiving 
vessel would be about the same as the pressure in the system at 
its farthest point from the boiler. If this pressure were near 
enough to that in the boiler and the receiver were placed at a 
height sufficient above the water level in the boiler so that the 
solid water column would make up for the difference in the pres- 
sures, the water would gravitate back into the boiler through a 
return pipe extending from the bottom of the receiver. With 
this understanding of the conditions, I prepared a spherical vessel- 
twelve inches in diameter as the receiver to be used in the system 
with which I was experimenting. I believed that a receiver of 



STEAM APPLIANCES 269 

the size mentioned would be ample for the purpose as the capacity 
was less than one gallon per minute. The receiver was placed on 
the floor above the boiler where the coils were situated and about 
nine feet above the water level in the boiler. After the receiver 
was connected up and steam turned on and the first water and air 
removed by blowing to the atmosphere, circulation began and was 
perfectly maintained. This, I believe, was the first steam loop 
ever made to return the water of condensation from a steam sys- 
tem situated below the water level of the boiler whence the water 
issued in the form of steam, all without in any way opening to 
the atmosphere. 

" After the steam loop had been in successful operation for 
some time in the Townsend & Jackson works I thought I would 
test it in another place. Accordingly, I selected the plant of 
Mess. Weed & Parsons, printers, of Albany, where a modern heat- 
ing system, using steam direct from the boiler, had just been 
installed. On investigation, I found a place about ten feet above 
the water level in the boiler where the receiver could be placed. 
After getting the system connected up and making several at- 
tempts to start a circulation, I met only with failure. I next 
concluded to try the steam pressures and found a difference of 
about eight pounds between that of the boiler and the coils. This 
explained to me the reason for the failure to get up a circulation, 
for it would require for the height of the return column of water 
about twenty-four feet, or over twice the space available. Owing 
to the conditions under which the system was installed I could 
not get a place sufficiently high for the receiver and could not 
without great expense enlarge the main steam-supply pipe so as 
to make the pressures more nearly equal. I then made a change 
by taking the receiver and suspending it on one end of a counter- 
balanced lever and added a steam valve for admitting steam direct 
from the boiler into the top of the receiver for the purpose of 
equalizing the pressure with that in the boiler. This steam valve 
was caused to gpen and close automatically by the rising and 
falling of the receiver. In the form here shown in the cut, Fig. 
248, this trap was known as the Albany Gravity Return-steam 
Trap." 

During the period following the introduction of this trap, 



270 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

improvements were added and the Albany Return Trap as used 
at the present time has all valves and other mechanism inclosed 
within the body of the Trap itself. As will be seen by the illus- 




FiG. 248. — Albany gravity return trap. 

tration, Fig. 249, the bucket of the Trap rests on a hinged pivot 
at one side of the bucket. As the return water enters the space 
between the bucket and the outer wall of the Trap, the bucket is 




Fig. 249. — The Albany return trap. 

tilted slightly, allowing the ball weight " C " to slide to the oppo- 
site side of the Trap, giving a sudden impetus to the tilting move- 
ment, which seats the equalizing steam valve and at the same time 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



271 



opens the exhaust valve. The bucket is held in this position until 
the water flows over the top edge and fills it, when it again tilts 
downward under the impetus of the preponderance of weight and 
the movement of the ball weight returning to its original posi- 
tion. This movement opens the equalizing valve, admitting steam 
direct from the boiler into the trap, thus equalizing the pressure 
between the boiler and the trap, whereupon the water in the 
bucket will feed through the siphon-pipe connection down and 
into the boiler. As the bucket is again tilted it closes the equal- 



Radiators above Water Lev;l in Boilei 




Fig. 250. — Method of connecting Albany return trap. 

izing valve against the steam pressure, the Trap refilling as 
before. The Return Trap should be located at least three feet 
above the water line of the boiler. 

We illustrate by Fig. 250 the general method of connecting 
the trap. The condensation collects in the cast-iron pot or re- 
ceiver. The pressure on this receiver from the heating system 
raises the water to the trap, which returns it to the boiler. 

There are several kinds of return traps, the same general 
principle of equalizing pressures being employed, although the 
methods of operating the traps differ widely. The Champion 
and the Pratt & Cady Traps work by balanced weights. The 
Bundy Return Trap differs from all of the others in that no 



272 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

movable or balanced weights are used. Fig. 251 shows the form 
of this trap and the method of making connections. The trap 
consists of a cast-iron bowl which swings on trunnions, moving 
in a vertical travel. When the trap is empty the bowl rests 
against the top of the frame surrounding it, the weight of the 
ball on the overhanging lever holding it in this position when 
empty or while filling. When the bowl fills with water to a point 
where the weight of the water combined with the weight of the 



Ash Pit DooH 
Floor Lin 




Fig. 251. — Bundy return trap and method of connecting. 



bowl overbalances the weight of the ball, the trap drops until 
it rests on the under side of the frame already alluded to. In 
making this movement it closes the air valve and opens the equal- 
izing valve, allowing the steam at boiler pressure to enter the bowl 
on top of the water, through the curved equalizing pipe shown 
in the bowl of the trap. Thus the pressures on the trap and the 
boiler are equalized. The water in the bowl now runs unob- 
structed out of the opening through which it entered the bowl 
and drops by gravity through the check valve on the return pipe 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



273 



and into the boiler. In returning to its first position the bowl 
closes the equalizing valve and opens the air valve and is again 
in readiness to receive the returning condensation. There must 
always be sufficient pressure on the returns or receiver to lift the 
water to the trap. Where this pressure (one pound for each two 
feet of lift) is not available, the duplex system, or use of two 
traps, is necessary. 

The office of the lower or secondary trap is to receive the 
water of condensation from the heating coils, or other source, 
by gravity and in turn lift or deliver it to the upper trap, which 
returns it to the boiler. It is claimed for return traps that they 
will handle water much hotter than a pump and with less loss in 
heat units. 

Separators 

Separators for removing moisture from steam and oil, or 
other impurities from feed water, are made in various forms. The 
nature of all of them is to receive the steam through the inlet 




Fig. 252. — Kieley separator. 

opening of the separator, directing it against a series of baffle 
plates. This action removes the oil or water and delivers the 
purified steam without loss of pressure into the supply main of 
the heating system. The oil or water so extracted drips into the 



274 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

lower chamber of the separator, from which it is removed through 
a drip pipe. On an exhaust heating system the separator is in- 
dispensable. When used to extract oil or other impurities from 
the exhaust it is placed on the exhaust pipe with the baffle plates 
facing toward the engine. When employed to remove the moist- 
ure from steam it is placed on the main steam pipe with the plates 
facing toward the boiler. 

Many separators are in satisfactory use. An Austin, Bundy, 




Fig. 253. — Bundy separator. 




Fig. 254.— Bundy separator baffle or 
separating plate. 



Kieley, or other make, may be found in the boiler room of nearly 
every power or heating plant. 

As representative of the separators having stationary cast- 
iron bafflle plates in the chamber of the separator, we illustrate the 
Kieley design, Fig. 25S. 

The Bundy Separator, Fig. 253, is illustrative of the type of 
separator with removable baffle plates and shows clearly the 
character of it. A nest of six or more baffle plates, or more prop- 



STEAM APPLIANCES 275 

erly, separating plates, as shown by Fig. 254, are grouped in the 
upper chamber of the separator. The pillars of these plates are 
staggered, the steam passing through and around them. Each 
pillar or column is channeled its entire length, the small openings 
through the face of each column communicating with the vertical 
channel through which the water or oil passes by gravity to the 
receiving chamber below. 

The plates may be easily removed for cleaning, — a very neces- 
sary factor when the separator is employed to remove oil or other 
impurities from the exhaust. 

Feed-water Heaters 

When the hot water from the condensed steam is used for 
other purposes and it is necessary to feed the boiler with fresh 
water, or, again, when the return water, trapped or pumped to 
the boiler, has lost the bulk of heat units contained in it, a very 
great saving may be effected by I'eheating this water before sup- 
plying it to the boiler. Engineers are agreed that for each 10 
degrees this water is heated, a saving of 1 per cent of the fuel 
is realized. 

Before the closed type of feed-water heater came into use 
it was customary to run the water of condensation or the fresh 
water into an open tank or hot well, heating it by steam coils or 
by turning the exhaust into it, whence it was pumped into the 
boiler. 

Frequently the water supplied to the feed-water heater is 
partially heated by coils in drip tanks, thereby making use of 
heat units which otherwise might be wasted. Progress along the 
lines of steam engineering has shown the advisability of saving 
all heat units possible, being conducive to economy in the con- 
sumption of fuel. The fact has been demonstrated that the feed- 
ing of cold water direct to the boiler creates a straining, due to 
expansion and contraction, which must necessarily shorten the life 
of the boiler. 

When the temperature of tlie feed water is raised from an 
average of 60 degrees to a temperature of from 200 to 212 de- 
grees, a saving of about 15 per cent of the fuel is effected. With- 
out entering into a discussion of the relative merits of various 



276 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



types of feed-water heaters we may say that a good heater to 
adopt is one which is so constructed as to admit of easy cleaning, 
one whose area for the passage of the exhaust is sufficiently great 




Fig. 255. — Bundy type of feed- water heater. 

to show no back pressure, and one in which the expansion and 
contraction of the inner tubes are fully provided for. Fig. 255 
illustrates one type of a feed-water heater of this character. 

Steam Pumps 
One method of returning water to a boiler is by the use of 
a boiler feed pump. It is entirely probable that no branch of 
steam engineering has received more attention than that of pump- 
ing machinery. Steam pumps are manufactured in a multitude 
of designs and sizes for regular and special purposes, the evolu- 
tion of the pump having been carried to such an extent that all 
liquids, including chemicals, may be pumped from one receptacle 
and delivered to another under all sorts of conditions. Air or 
gas may be pumped and where steam power is not available, 
electrically operated pumps may be employed. Our use of pumps 
has only to do with pumping the water supply to the boiler or 
in removing the condensation from a heating system and creating 
and maintaining a vacuum on the heating system. 



STEAM APPLIANCES 277 

Boiler Feed Pumps 

For this purpose many standard makes are in evidence, among 
which may be mentioned the Knowles, Marsh, Blake and Deane 
Pumps. Fig. ^56 illustrates the Knowles Direct-acting Steam 
Pump. This pump has many features to recommend it, chief 
of which is the simplicity of its construction. An auxiliary 
piston working in the steam chest drives the main valve, pre- 
venting what is known to engineers as a " dead center." The 
meaning conveyed by this expression is that there is a dead 
point which would stop and prevent the operation of the pump. 




Fig. 256. — Knowles direct-acting steam pump. 

This piston driven backward and forward by the steam carries 
with it the main valve, which in turn supplies the steam to the 
main piston operating the pump, there being no point in the 
stroke at which either of the pistons is not open to direct steam 
pressure. 

The Marsh Boiler Feed Pump, Fig. 257, is the style used 
of this particular make for low pressure as with a heating appa- 
ratus. It is essential that a pump employed for this purpose shall 
be of sufficient size to allow of slow running. While reducing its 
pumping capacity this is best for low-pressure work. The motion 



278 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




Fig. 257. — ^Marsh boiler feed pump. 




Fig. 258. — Blake boiler feed pump. 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



279 



is less, requiring increased diiference between the steam and water 
pistons. 

The Blake Pump used for boiler feed purposes in connection 
with a heating system is shown by Fig. 258. It has large direct 
water passages, conducive to the reducing of water friction and 
its operation is continuous at slow speed. 



Vacuum Pumps 

Certain mechanical work such as sugar making, etc., demand 
dry " vacuum pump. For vacuum systems of heating where 




Fig. 259. — Marsh vacuum pump. 




the water of condensation and the air are handled together, the 
radiators and piping act as a condensing system. For this 



280 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

purpose pumps with large cylinders must be employed and the 
valve areas must be sufficiently large to insure the filling of the 
pump cylinder. It is customary to pump the water and air to a 
separating tank from which the water, at a high temperature, 
is delivered to the boiler, the air being delivered to the atmos- 
phere. Fig. 259 shows the Marsh type of vacuum pump and 
Fig. 260 the Knowles Vacuum Pump. Each of these types has 
a horizontal stroke ; other styles have a vertical stroke and one, 
two or more cylinders. 

Pump Governors and Regulators 

To give the best of service steam pumps should be operated 
automatically. This is accomplished by a pump governor or 
regulator which controls the steam to the pump, thereby reducing 



steam from Boiler 



To Pump 




Fig. 261. — Kieley pump governor. 

or increasing the speed of the pump, according to the amount of 
condensation to be handled. On heating systems the establishing 
of a fixed water line, as may be accomplished with a pump gov- 
ernor, is a distinct advantage and a material help to the appa- 
ratus. 

There are two general types of pump governors, the first 
operating quite similar to a trap with a bucket or float. The 
Kieley Pump Governor, Fig. 261, has a ball float inside the cast- 
iron chamber, which rises and falls according to the amount of 
water delivered through the return pipe. This float connects 
with an arm or lever outside the casting, which operates the steam 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



281 



supply valve to the pump. The suction pipe to pump is connected 
at the bottom of the receiving chamber of the pump governor. 

The Blessing Pump Governor operates the steam valve by the 
rise and fall of an iron bucket within the receiving chamber of the 
governor, the general principle employed being quite similar to 
that already described. 

Quite different in style and operation are the pump regulators 
of the Knowles, Blake and Worthington types. These consist of 
a cast-iron receiver placed just above the pump. The drips or 
return pipes from the heating apparatus drain by gravity into 




Fig. 262. — Knowles pump and receiver. 

these receivers. In the interior of each one is placed a float and 
balance valve. The return water enters the receiver through an 
opening in the top and falls to the bottom of the receiver. When 
it accumulates in sufficient quantity to raise the float, the pump 
is started, which immediately takes the accumulation from the 
receiver and delivers it to the boiler. When the float falls again 
the steam supply to the pump is shut off and the pump ceases to 
work, the speed of it being regulated entirely by the amount of 
water entering the receiver. Fig. 262 shows the arrangement of a 
pump, receiver, and regulator of this character. 



282 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Back-Pressure Valves 

On exhaust-heating work there must be sufficient pressure to 
circulate the steam to all portions of the heating- surfaces. The 
piping supplying the exhaust mains of the heating system should 
be plenty large in area in order to avoid an increase of back pres- 
sure on the engine. As has heretofore been stated, the exhaust 
from the engine is intermittent, the pressure on the exhaust pipe 
being greater or less, varying with the stroke of the engine. The 
heating system, acting as a condensing apparatus, does not al- 
ways use or condense all of the exhaust steam and there must es- 
sentially be a relief provided. This is accomplished by placing 
a special form of valve on the exhaust between the exhaust opening 
from the engine and the exhaust head, acting as a check on the 




Fig. 263. — Back-pressure valve. 

steam in its forward motion toward the opening to the atmosphere. 
At the same time it provides a preventive to the backward motion 
of the steam. When the excess of pressure occurs the valve opens 
and relieves the pressure through the exhaust pipe to the atmos- 
phere. It is virtually an adjustable check valve with a lever and 
weight attachment for balancing the pressure. The unequal pres- 
sure from the engine causes a throbbing or vibration, which in 
many of the back-pressure valves is objectionable, owing to the 
noise. 

While there are many excellent makes of back-pressure valves, 



STEAM APPLIANCES 283 

practically the same methods of operation are employed in each 
and every one, and for this reason we illustrate but the one type 
as shown by Fig. 263. 

Pressure-Reducing Valves 

When live steam is turned into the piping of a heating system 
it is at a high pressure, the same varying with the initial pressure 
at the boiler. Such a pressure must be reduced or checked before 
admission to the heating system. In order to accomplish this 
many styles of valves are used, which may be set to regulate the 
pressure to any amount desired. As the regulation is from the 
low-pressure side of the valve, the reduced pressure remains con- 
stant, regardless of its fluctuation on the high-pressure side. In 
heating practice, gate valves are usually placed on the piping on 
either side of the reducing-pressure valve in order that the steam 
may be cut off from it to make adjustment or repairs. 

Injectors 

An injector is a device used for forcing feed water into a 
boiler against boiler pressure, that is to say, against whatever pres- 
sure may be carried on it. There are two distinct types of injec- 
tors, positive and automatic. The injector performs two offices. 
It lifts the water from whatever source of supply is provided and 
it also tempers it and delivers it into the boiler. 

The positive or double-tube injector has an overflow which 
closes mechanically and has two sets of jets, one for lifting the 
water, the other for forcing it into the boiler. 

The automatic injector has an overflow which opens and closes 
through the action of the injector itself and, as a usual thing, has 
but one set of jets. 

The operation of the injector is such that the steam at boiler 
pressure is passed into a vacuum through a very small opening. 
As this jet of steam strikes the water it is quickly condensed, creat- 
ing a velocity or forward movement of the water. All of the energy 
of the steam is imparted to the water warming it and forcing it 
into the boiler. 

Owing to these features the range of the injector depends upon 
the temperature of the feed water, it having a greater range, lift 



284 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

and pressure, with water at a low temperature. The best results 
are obtained with the feed water at from 60 to 100 degrees Fahr., 



Water. 



To Boiler 





mm'Wm^^ 








jiHi| 








i\ 




hyy^/}'^$m§^^ 




MSSf^SSM^^^ 


^^ 


'• ^'':^>Krir^!^'M^P^^ 




/(^\ '^ '-^1^0':. 


'^^•^Ma^ 




- A ( fi .'''■■■■ '■■.h: 


i--'-: . ■■■".■!-■',:■?&<': 




\i \ " vr>\'-.;,fj;;'; 


X '■''■->'''[ 'r'f^4 




Hi '/IHi 


iMsiS'f^s-pM 





^im 



Overflow 




Fig. 265.— U. S. injector 

(interior). 



Fig. 264.— U. S. injector. 




Fig. 266. — Method of connecting injector. 

although the injector will satisfactorily handle water at a tem- 
perature up to 140 degrees. 



STEAM APPLIANCES 285 

The double-tube injector is a German invention. There are 
several styles of injectors, one of which we illustrate by Fig. 264, 
showing an interior view of the same by Fig. 265. 

In order to show the method of connecting the steam supply, 
suction pipe and delivery to boiler, we illustrate one method of 
connection. Fig. 266. When the boiler feed water is supplied 
from a tank above the boiler, the suction pipe should be connected 
as shown by dotted lines. Gate or globe valves should be placed 
on steam supply and suction pipes and a check valve on a hori- 
zontal portion of the boiler feed pipe. The nearer the boiler and 
the farther from the injector this check valve is located, the better. 
A stopcock sliould be placed on the pipe between this check valve 
and the boiler. 

Inspirators 

This is a type of injector and operates along the same lines 
as the injector above described. That used for feeding boilers 
of the stationary type, as used for heating or power, is shown 
by Fig. 267 and the interior mechanism of it by Fig. 268. The 
name " inspirator " was given to it by Mr. John Hancock under 
conditions as follows: 

" In the year 1868, John Hancock, a civil engineer, began ex- 
periments having in view the entraining of air and compressing 
it to a certain extent, to be used as a blast for forges and fur- 
naces. These experiments led to the exhausting of air by means 
of a jet apparatus, which is now known commercially as an ejector. 
He found it possible by this method to create a vacuum to the 
extent of twenty-five or twenty-six inches mercury column ; also 
that water could be lifted from a depth of twenty-five feet and 
elevated into a tank. Later he found that he could make a jet 
apparatus which would, with its own steam pressure, force water 
into a boiler when the water flowed to it from an overhead tank 
or under pressure. This type of apparatus is now called a non- 
lifting injector. He therefore applied these two methods, using 
the ejector to lift the water from a well and deliver it into a tank 
located above the injector. The water then flowed to the injector 
and was forced into the boiler. This combination was placed in 
successful operation in several instanceSo 



S86 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



" Following up this idea, Mr. Hancock became convinced that 
the tank could be eliminated and the ejector or lifting apparatus 
be attached direct to the injector or forcing apparatus. He ac- 
complished this arrangement and the two connected were emi- 
nently satisfactory ; in fact, much more so than the first arrange- 




Fig. 267. — Hancock inspirator. 



OVERFLOW 

Fig. 268. — Interior mechanism of Hancock 

inspirator. 



ment, as the ejector varied its quantity of water as the steam 
pressure varied, which was just what the injector required to ob- 
tain a good working range. He considered this idea in the nature 
of an inspiration and thereupon called the apparatus the Han- 
cock Inspirator." 



STEAM APPLIANCES 



287 



Automatic Water Feeders 

Automatic water feeders, or devices for feeding water to the 
boiler in order to maintain a certain definite water line in the same. 




Fig. 269. — Automatic water feeder — Nason type. 



are manufactured in a great variety of styles. The action of the 
valves is controlled by a copper-ball float, the water raising this 
float until the normal level of the water 
line has been reached, when the valve 
to the water supply is closed. The 
pressure of the water supply must ex- 
ceed the pressure carried on the boiler. 
The Nason type of boiler feeder is 
shown by Fig. 269. The Lawler type 
of water feeder is shown by Fig. 270. 
As will be noted by the illustration, 
this feeder is used in place of the regu- 
lation water column and is provided 
with a water gauge. Water feeders are 
now manufactured which, when used 
on heating boilers, not only keep the 
boiler supplied to its normal water line, 
but also prevent the flooding of the 
boiler by reason of the sudden return 
to the boiler of any water of condensa- 
tion which might have become en- x? aryn t ^ ^ +• 
J^ Fig. 270. — Lawler automatic 

trained in piping or radiators. water feeder. 




CHAPTER XXIII 

District Heating 

This type, if it may be so termed, of steam and hot-water 
heating owes its inception to an eminent engineer, Mr. Birdsall 
Holly, of Lockport, N. Y., who, in the year 1877, introduced 
the system of underground steam distribution which bears his 
name. The original plant, with about one mile of underground 
mains, was installed at Lockport, N. Y., then a city of about 
20,000 inhabitants, and the first buildings connected with and 
heated by the same were five stores, seven residences and two 
churches, and the original system, with extensions and improve- 
ments, is now in operation. 

Mr. Holly's first idea in the construction of this plant was 
to make use of live steam, the main object being to relieve the 
users from the necessity of the care and attention essential where 
individual heating apparatus was used, and to eliminate the dirt 
and other unpleasant features unavoidably present in connection 
with the operation of a heating apparatus. Mr. Holly reasoned 
that those persons owning and operating such plants would pay 
well to be freed of such care and attention and the trouble oc- 
casioned by the purchasing and handling of fuel. In using steam 
from a district plant there would also be a freedom from the 
danger of fire consequent to the operation of a heating plant within 
each separate building. 

That the inventor reasoned along correct lines is clearly demon- 
strated by the fact that this original plant has been added to 
from time to time until some three hundred and fifty consumers 
are customers of the company operating it, the plant at the 
present time having in successful operation some six miles of 
street mains. 

Many obstacles, which had to be met or eliminated altogether, 



DISTRICT HEATING 289 

were encountered in the operation of such a plant and years of 
effort and experimenting were required to perfect it. 

The proper insulation of the 'pipes to prevent loss of heat by 
radiation from the street mains and service connections, the con- 
struction of devices for providing for expansion and contraction, 
anchorage, etc., together with other features of construction, were 
tested exhaustively in a practical manner, with the result that the 
Holly System is to-day free from the defects prevalent in its 
original form. 

The fact that steam can be manufactured in an isolated posi- 
tion, from cheap fuel at small expense and delivered without any 
considerable loss in temperature through ten miles or more of 
street mains, and the further circumstance that special devices 
regulate and register the amount of steam used by each consumer, 
all these, together with other incident conditions, have made this 
class of heating a paying investment and at this period there are 
hundreds of district systems in successful operation. 

The early methods of district heating were such that the water 
of condensation was returned to the central station through a 
system of piping separate from the steam mains. This has now 
been generally abandoned and the surplus of heat available in 
the water of condensation is fed through a trap to an economizing 
coil (made usually of several sections of indirect radiation), where 
the remaining heat units are extracted and delivered to a room 
above through a register in the same manner as from an indirect 
radiator on an ordinary job of heating. The w^ater of condensa- 
tion is then carried to a special condensation meter, where it is 
weighed and quantities registered and is finally emptied into the 
sewer. 

The system of piping in the building to be heated may be of 
either the one-pipe or two-pipe style, and, if hot-water heat is em- 
ployed, a special type of hot-water heater is used, through which 
the steam passes in much the same manner as through a feed-water 
heater. In this event steam rather than coal or other fuel, is used 
to heat the water. Probably the best adaptation of district steam 
heating is by the method of piping known as the " Atmospheric 
System." The hot-water type of radiator is used and the steam 
is supplied to each radiator at the top of one end through a 



290 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

special form of valve with small ports or openings in the seat. 
Thus a valve may be opened one, two, three or four ports, supply- 
ing a greater or lesser amount of heat to a radiator, or such an 
amount as may be required to maintain a uniform temperature 
within the room to be heated. This system is operated under a 
few ounces of pressure above that of the atmosphere and such 
heat units as are contained in the steam or water are extracted 
before the water of condensation enters the returns. 

A finely adjusted regulating pressure valve is used on the 
supply from the street main and as the condensation is metered 
and weighed the consumer pays only for such heat as he has used. 

As stated before, the first idea of central-station heating was 
that of the production and sale of live steam. At the present time 
this class of enterprise has found favor with the management of 
large electric lighting and railway plants, as it gives an oppor- 
tunity to increase their revenues by providing a profitable method 
for disposing of their exhaust steam. 

There are several systems of central-station steam heating now 
in use. The different systems vary somewhat in the manner of 
constructing the piping or underground mains and also in the 
method of handling the steam supply after it has been introduced 
to the building to be heated. We would divide the methods of 
central-station or district steam heating into two classes, the first, 
where the steam is manufactured only for the purpose of heating; 
the second, where the steam generated is used for power and the 
" by-product," if so it may be termed, is used for heating pur- 
poses. It is the latter method which is more generally used, and 
a wonderful saving is effected by the company which disposes of 
their exhaust in this manner. It is customary to di^ade the boiler 
power of each station into units of 150 or 200 H. P. each. A 
one-thousand H. P. plant would have five 200 H. P. boilers, one 
of them held in reserve, the other four in daily operation. It 
has been shown that after allowing this one-fifth, or 20^, boiler 
reserve, a further allowance of 15^ for heating feed water and a 
5^ loss for leakage and deterioration from condensation, each of 
the 1,000 H. P. capacity of the plant can supply 80 sq. ft. of 
radiation with the necessary units of heat, or 80,000 sq. ft. of 
ordinary cast-iron radiation. During periods of intense cold 



DISTRICT HEATING 



291 



weather the reserve boiler may be employed to prevent overwork 
on the part of those in regular use. 

It is worth noting that in many instances the revenue from 
the steam sold for heating has been sufficient to pay the fuel bill 
for the entire plant for the full twelve months of the year. 

Central-Station Hot-Water Heating 

Heating by hot water supplied from a central station has 
during the past ten years resulted in the installation of over one 
hundred plants of this nature. While the process of heating sev- 
eral buildings from a single plant is not new, it having been more 
or less used for fifty years or more, the improvements in methods 
of installation and control have advanced materially during the 
last decade. The systems of Evans-Almiral Company, H. T. Yar- 
yan and also Schott's balanced column system have been largely 
used and to-day there are over one hundred of them in operation. 

This work includes some features which will prove of interest 
to the fitter. The matter of estimating the amount of radiation 
required to heat a building depends upon the system employed 
and the manner of operating the plant. Some systems deliver 
water at 140° at freezing and raise or lower the temperature one 
degree for each degree of variation of the outside temperature. 
Provided the service or street mains are large and there is a suffi- 
cient amount of radiation installed, this plan works out nicely. 
We would prefer seeing the w^ater at 155° or 160° at freezing 
and then vary the temperature according to the weather. 

TABLE XXVI 



Outside Temperature. 


Water Temperature. 




60° 


120° 




50° 


140° 




40° 


150° 




30° 


160° 


An estimated loss 


20° 


180° 


of 3° in tempera- 


10° 


190° 


ture for each mile 


Zero 


200° 


delivered. 


-10° 


210° 




-20° 


220° 




-30° 


230° 





292 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

In estimating radiation one square foot of radiating surface 
for each square foot of glass surface and its equivalent in exposed 
wall and cubical contents will, as a rule, prove a sufficient ratio in 
figuring work. Schott advises a schedule of temperatures, as 
shown on page 291. 

As to which system is preferable — steam or hot water — it 
would be a hard matter to decide, as each one seems to have par- 
ticular and individual advantages peculiar to itself and not pos- 
sessed by the other. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

Pipe and Boiler Covering 

The insulating of exposed boiler or heater surfaces and pipe 
for conveying hot air, steam or hot water and the value of so 
doing are matters which ofttimes do not receive proper attention 
from the steam fitter or heating contractor. Many steam fitters 
doing work in a small way, installing but few jobs in the course 
of a season, look upon the subject of covering as an increased 
expenditure for material which, added to the cost of the work, is 
apt to destroy all their chances for securing the contracts for 
the jobs, and this especially if competition be close. An argu- 
ment of this kind is wrong in its entirety, and steam fitters gen- 
erally who are contracting for heating work should understand 
the benefits accruing from thoroughly covering the boiler and 
such exposed piping as is not used for radiating surface, and 
should become so familiar with the subject and so versed in its 
application that the owner may be enhghtened as to the saving 
effected and thus be made to feel willing to pay whatever sum 
may be necessary for the work. 

Just as heat is conveyed by three distinct methods, viz., by 
radiation, by conduction and by convection, as explained in 
Chapter II, just so is heat lost or dissipated from the bare sur- 
faces of boilers, heaters and piping for conveying steam or hot 
water. What this loss is has been quite accurately determined 
by various authorities. 

One authority states that a square foot of uncovered pipe, 
filled with steam at 100 lbs. pressure, will radiate and dissipate 
in a year the heat put into 3,716 pounds of steam by the economic 
combustion of 398 pounds of coal ; thus 10 square feet of bare 
steam pipe (steam at 100 lbs. pressure) corresponds approximately 
to the waste or loss of two tons of coal per annum. 



294 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



Some tests reported in Volume XXIII of the proceedings of 
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (tests made in 
1901) show that on 100 lineal feet of 2-inch pipe, carrying steam 
at 80 lbs. pressure, tests based on 300 working days of 10 hours 
each, with temperature of room about 65° Fahr., a very ma- 
terial saving was effected. The following table shows the results 
of the test : 

TABLE XXVII 



Name of Pipe 
Covering. 


Condensa- 
tion per 
Hour Lbs. 


Net Tons 

of Coal 

consumed 

per Year. 


Net Tons 
of Coal 

saved per 

Year by 
use of 

Covering. 


Cost of 
Coal per 
Net Ton. 


Net Saving in 

Cost of Coal per 

Annum by use of 

Covering. 


Approxi- 
mate Cost 
of Cover- 
ings. 


Bare Pipe 

Asbestocel 

Asbetos Molded 
Air Cell 


59.16 
13.47 
14.35 
14.60 


7.76 
1.83 
1.96 
1.99 


5.93 

5.80 

5.77 


$4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 


$31.04 loss 
23.72 saving 
23.20 " 
23.08 " 


$16.20 
15.95 
15.90 



When we consider that there are about 64 square feet of heat- 
ing surface in 100 lineal feet of 2" pipe, the annual saving amounts 
practically to 35 cents per square foot, which will pay the entire 
cost of the covering, leaving the saving of future years as a 
clear profit on the investment. While the above tests were made 
at a comparatively high pressure, with 1 lb. of coal evaporating 
about 11 lbs. of water, the same proportionate showing may be 
made with steam at one or two lbs. pressure or on hot-water 
piping where the temperature of water averages 160 degrees. 
Stated in a different manner, the saving effected by the use of 
covering on low-pressure steam or hot-water work averages from 
10^ to 30^ of the entire yearly expense for fuel, dependent on 
the character and quality of the covering used. 

Asbestos, magnesia, mineral wool, cork, wood and felt paper 
are the materials principally employed in the manufacture of pipe 
covering, although for underground piping, ashes, charcoal and 
sawdust have been used. 

The thermal conductivity of the material used governs the ef- 
fective character of a covering applied to prevent loss of heat, 
the efficiency of asbestos, magnesia, hair felt or cork being greater 
than all other materials in this respect. 



PIPE AND BOILER COVERING 



295 



Asbestos is a fibrous rock, Fig. 271, found in many parts 
of the world. It lies in thin strata or layers and, when broken, 
separates in long silky fibers, which may be spun into threads 




Fig. 271. — ^Asbestos rock. 

or woven into wicking or sheets. This material is not only fire- 
proof, but acid-proof as well and serves as an insulation for 
electric currents. 

Cork, as used for covering, is ground or granulated and then 
pressed into the desired shape. In places where the coveriiig is 




Fig. 272. — Method of fastening sectional pipe covering. 



affected by dampness or water, cork covering is, no doubt, su- 
perior to all others on account of its non-absorbent and odorless 
qualities. 

Pressed cork, magnesia, asbestos and, in fact, all coverings of 



296 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

this nature are manufactured in three-foot lengths and split 
lengthwise for easy adjustment on the piping. The different 
varieties have an outer covering of muslin or light canvas, glued 
or pasted on them, to give a finish. Covering is secured to the 
pipe by japanned tin or brass bands, as shown by Fig. 272. 

Air when confined within a space to prevent circulation is a 
non-conductor of heat and provides good insulation. A cover- 
ing which has met with much favor for low-pressure work and 




Fig. !273. — Asbestos air-cell pipe covering. 



for hot-water piping is known as the " air-cell " covering. It is 
made of corrugated asbestos paper of various thicknesses. A cross 
section of this covering is illustrated by Fig. 273. 

As a rule, on ordinary heating work, the exposed boiler and 
heater surfaces and the pipe fittings are covered with a magnesia- 
asbestos plastic cement, mixed with water to the desired consist- 
ency and applied with a trowel. However, molded fittings may 
be obtained for use with all sectional covering. See Fig. 274. 
These are secured to the fittings by bands of tin or brass, as show^n 
by illustration. 

For underground piping or for steam pipes run in the open 
there is probably no better type of covering than the Wyckoff 
wood covering, as illustrated by Fig. 275. It is constructed of 



PIPE AND BOILER COVERING 



297 



eight thoroughly seasoned white pine staves, one inch thick, 
closely jointed together and wound with heavy galvanized steel 
wire, as shown by the illustration. It is then wrapped with two 




Fig. 274.— Molded fittings. 



layers of heavy corrugated paper and again surrounded by a pine 
wood casing one inch in thickness, jointed and w^ire wound as 
before. When used underground, the exterior of the covering is 





^"?^--^?:ir>r^>.^:-. 


-■••^* ?. -^ — -/A A 


^^^^/'^i^flllltlllllHtflllfK jfiiiiifiniiiiiiiiuiw^ 


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Fig. 275. — ^Wyckoff wood covering. 

completely coated with asphaltum pitch. A covering of this kind 
for such service will undoubtedly outlast all others and is thor- 
oughly effective as an insulator. 

There are now so many different varieties and grades of cov- 
erings on the market that it would be next to impossible to illus- 



298 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

trate and describe them, nor can we discuss the merits of the vari- 
ous makes. It is sufficient to state that in the same manner as the 
thickness and texture of clothing retain the heat of the human 
body so does insulation retain the heat within the steam or hot- 
water heating system, the quality of the covering governing 
the amount of heat retained and the saving made. 



CHAPTER XXV 

Temperature Regulation and Heat Control 

Automatic government of pressures and temperatures is one 
of the most important adjuncts to an artificial heating apparatus. 
We have shown in Chapter IV by illustration Fig. 35, a simple 
automatic steam damper regulator for regulating steam pres- 
sures, and by Figs. 36, 37 and 38, the application of it to the 
•draught and check damper doors of a steam boiler. 

For the draught regulation of a high-pressure boiler, the 
damper regulator is heavier and more powerful, the rubber dia- 
phragm larger and the lever longer. A better regulator is one in 
which a compound lever is employed. A very slight movement of 
the rubber and the plunger resting against it will give a movement 
of from four to eight inches at the end of the lever where the 
chain to draught door is connected. In this style of regulator the 
rubber diaphragm is less apt to get strained or broken. 

Probably the best high-pressure damper regulator is one 
where a piston working in a cylinder is used, the piston being 
operated by water pressure. The employment of a compound 
lever on this type of regulator makes it extremely sensitive and 
will successfully operate the dampers at less than one-pound pres- 
sure. The Lock and Climax Regulators are of this character, 
that illustrated by Fig. 276 being the Imperial Climax. 

The successful and economical working of a steam boiler, 
either high or low pressure, depends largely upon the methods 
employed in regulating the pressure by means of the draught and 
check damper doors. All methods formerly applied depended 
upon the power furnished by the boiler itself. During the last 
twenty years such rapid strides have been made in temperature 
regulation that we now have regulators for controlling tempera- 
tures of air, water and steam, as well as other liquids and gases, 
and it would require a volume to adequately describe, illustrate 



300 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

and comment upon the A^arious makes of regulators. We shall, 
therefore, select some regulators and systems representative of 
the various styles in use, and endeavor to give the reader an idea 
of the scope and character of this important industry. 

The automatic temperature regulator consists of three parts : 
{a) The thermostat, which by reason of the changes in the 




Fig. 276. — Climax high-pressure regulator, 

temperatures of the room, furnishes the primary motor power 
for operating the damper-controlling device. 

(b) The means of transmitting this energy to the damper- 
controlling mechanism. 

(c) The damper-controlling mechanism, or device for open- 
ing or closing the dampers. 

The thermostat is placed within the room or at a point where 
the temperature is to be controlled. This is the primary motor 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



301 



operating the apparatus by means of certain mechanism employed 
for opening and closing the draught doors, check draught doors 
or dampers. 

The PoAvers Thermostat, Fig. 277, operates on the vapor prin- 
ciple. This disc is composed of two metal plates spun in cor- 





FiG. 277. — The Powers' tliermoslat. 



rugations to give flexibility. Fastened together at the outside 
edges these plates form a hollow disc. A volatile liquid is placed 
within the disc. This liquid will boil and vaporize at a tem- 
perature below that of the water in the apparatus, or at a tem- 





FiG. 278. — Regulator for hot-water 
heater or furnace. 



Fig. 279. — Regulator for low-pressure 
steam boiler. 



perature of 50 degrees Fahr., generating a pressure which ex- 
pands the disc. At a temperature of 70 degrees a pressure of 
about six pounds to the square inch is exerted and this amount of 
pressure is sufficient to operate the valves controlling the com- 
pressed air. 



302 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

For the regulation of the ordinary house-heating apparatus^ 
this regulator is made in three styles, the same disc as shown by 
Fig. 277 furnishing the primary motor power: 

(a) which controls the temperature of the rooms by operat- 
ing the draught and check doors of the hot-water heater or hot- 
air furnace by a diaphragm motor as shown by Fig. 278 ; 

(b) which controls the draught and check doors of a low- 
pressure steam heater by a diaphragm motor of double construc- 
tion, as shown by Fig. 279, which also takes the place of the 
ordinary pressure diaphragm regulator usually furnished with 
steam boilers ; 

(c) which regulates the temperature of the room by regu- 
lating the temperature of the water in a hot-water heater by 
means of a generator in connection with the diaphragm motor — 




Fig. 280.--Hot-water regulator. 

Fig. 280. This generator is attached directly to the heater and 
one of the flow pipes from the heater is connected to it. 

The diaphragm motor consists of two castings, slightly oval, 
bolted together, with an elastic material between. The reverse 
action of the plunger is accelerated by a steel spring placed around 
the plunger under the lever connection. The generator is a hol- 
low casting having a double shell or wall. The inner chamber 
is filled with cold water. The hot water passing from the heater 
into the flow pipe flows through tjie space between the inner and 
outer shells of the generator, tM^/^rrounding the chamber into 
which the cold water has been ^iTaced. As the water in this inner 
chamber is under less pressure than that in the heater, it will 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



30^ 



boil quicker, producing a pressure which is exerted against the 
under side of the diaphragm through a pipe connected directly 
to it. This pressure is sufficient to operate the dampers of the 
heater and prevent the boiling of the water in the system. 

In order to obtain the best results from a regulator of this 
kind, it is essential that very light or counterbalanced check and 





Fig. 281. 



-Counterbalanced check 
door. 



Fig. 282. — Counterbalanced draught 
door. 



draught doors be used. Fig. 281 shows a very good style of check 
damper and Fig. 282 an excellent draught damper. The exertion 
of a very slight force will open or close either of these doors. 

The Powers System of controlling the temperature of a large 
building provides for the control of the valves admitting t'he 





283. — Powers' diaphragm 
radiator valve. 



Fig. 



284. — Thermostat for control- 
ling radiator valve. 



steam, or regulating the floAV of hot water to the radiators. We 
know that an occupant of a room, by watching the thermometer 
and attending constantly to the operation of the radiator valves. 



304 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

may control the temperature of the room in a very satisfactory 
manner. The Powers System accomphshes this work automati- 
cally by means of diaphragm radiator valves, Fig. 283, which 
are placed on all radiators and operated by compressed air 
regulated by a thermostat, which is placed in each room and may 
be adjusted wdth a key to operate the valves at any temperature 
from 60° to 80° Fahr. This thermostat is shown by Fig. 284, 
without the cover. The cover is composed of metal, plated to 
correspond with the decoration of the room, and has a tested 
thermometer attached to its face. 

For controlling the mixing dampers of a blower system of 
heating, or the by-pass dampers of the air supply, the same type 
of thermostat as that already described is used, the dampers being 
operated by a diaphragm motor, Fig. 285. 

Compressed-air pipes lead from the storage tank to each of 
the thermostats and from the thermostat to each motor. The 
variation of temperature at the thermostat causes it to operate 




Fig. 285. — Powers' diaphragm motor. 

as the primary force for releasing or retaining the air pressure 
upon the motor. With the air pressure removed the springs of 
the motor operate the dampers in a motion opposite to that ef- 
fected by the compressed air. Possibly a clearer conception of 
this arrangement may be had from Fig. 286? which shows an 
elevation of a fan apparatus as used in a school building. " A " 
shows the location of the thermostats in the school rooms ; " B " 
the motor ; " C " the mixing dampers controlled by them. 

" D " shows the location of the thermostat for controlling the 
temperature of the tempered air before admission to the fan ; " E " 
the motor which operates this damper. 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



305 



" F " shows the reservoir or storage tank for the compressed 
air. A pressure of air at fifteen pounds is automatically main- 




1 

GO 

I 



tained in this tank. The air compressor may be operated by 
steam, electric or hydraulic pressure. 



306 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



The operation of the National Regulator for the above class 
of work is quite similar to that already described. 

For control of a direct-heating apparatus a diaphragm valve 
is used on the radiators, and for a fan system a diaphragm or 
damper motor is used and compressed air is employed to operate 
each of these. 





Fig. 287. — National regulator thermostat. 



Fig. 288. — National regulator ther- 
mostat interior mechanism. 



The thermostat, however, is entirely different from all others, 
a vulcanized rubber tube being the element made use of in con- 
trolling the compressed-air force which operates the system. Fig. 
287 shows the thermostat and the ornamental thermometer used 
in connection with it. Contained within the rubber tube are the 
air valve and the valves for operating the compressed air. Vul- 
canized rubber is very sensitive to changes of temperature, ex- 
panding or contracting instantly with the varying temperatures 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



307 



of the room, and when such expansion or contraction occurs it 
results in the opening or closing of the compressed air valves. 

The interior of this thermostat is shown by Fig. 288. Two 
air pipes are used, one from the air reservoir to the thermostat 
and the other from the thermostat to the valve or motor. 

The expansion or lengthening, or the contraction or shorten- 
ing of the rubber tube A raises or sets the point of the rod 
K upon the seat M, opening or closing the valves of the air 
supply. 

For the regulation of the temperature of water in storage 
tanks we show the D. & R. (Davis & Roesch) regulator. Fig. 




Fig. 289.— D. & R. tank regfulator. 



289 show^s the application of it to a tank heated by a steam coil. 
The motor employed is a diaphragm valve, using the rubber dia- 
phragm against which water or air pressure is exerted to close 
the valve, a spring on the stem of the under side of the valve 
holding it open until the pressure upon the diaphragm is suffi- 
cient to close it. The primary motive power is obtained from 
a regulator with an expansion post or plug screwed into an 



308 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



opening of the tank and extending into the same, as shown on 
the illustration. The mechanism is such that the expansion of 
the post pushes a spring which opens a valve, allowing the pres- 
sure of the water supply, or compressed air, to close the diaphragm 
valve by exerting a pressure upon the diaphragm. When the 
temperature of the water cools sufficiently to allow the post within 
the regulator to contract, this pressure is removed, the diaphragm 
valve opening by the spring, and steam is allowed to enter the 
heating coil. 

In a slightly different form this regulator is made to use on 
tanks supplied directly from a hot-water heater and adapted for 





Fig. 290.— The Howard 
thermostat. 



Fig. 291. — Motor for Howard thermostat. 



domestic hot-water supply, pasteurizing or sterilizing, and is also 
employed for directly controlling the draught and check dampers 
of a hot-water heater. 

It is best known as a device to prevent the overheating of 
water in a storage-tank supply system. 

Of the regulators operated by expansion we show the Howard 
and the Minneapolis as representing two distinct types. Each of 
these regulators makes use of a motor having a strong spring 
mechanism which furnishes power to operate the dampers. 

The Howard thermostat is composed of a sensitive plate, tri- 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



309 



angular in form, as shown by Fig. 290, attached to the side wall 
of the room. As the temperature rises, the plate curves or warps 
toward the wall. A wire and chain connection concealed within 
the partition leads from the top of the plate, over frictionless 
pulleys, to a weight within the motor box. The relaxing of this 
wire and chain allows the weight to drop sufficiently to release the 
motor, which makes one half turn of the crank arbor, when it stops 
automatically. The crank connecting with chain to the check 
damper, points down, holding the check damper door open ; the 
crank connecting with the draught door, points up, slacking the 




Fig. 292. — Method of attaching Howard thermostat. 

chain connection to the draught door, which closes by its own 
weight, or, if this be insufficient, by a weight attached to the bot- 
tom of it. As the temperature of the room cools below the degree 
of heat desired, this action is reversed, the check door being 
closed and the draught door opened. This is better illustrated 
by Fig. 291 which shows the mechanism of the motor, a thermo- 
static plate being attached to show the operation of the weight 
due to the curving of the plate. 

The operation of the motor and the method of attaching the 
chains to draught and check doors are clearly illustrated by Fig. 
292. The spring of the motor Is occasionally wound with a key. 



310 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

The motor of the MinneapoHs regulator and the method of 
attaching the chain connections to the draught and check doors are 
quite similar to that already described. Otherwise the regulator 
consists of a thermostat and two cells of open circuit battery. 
The thermostat, Fig. 29S, is operated by the expansion and con- 
traction of a curved metal blade, imparting a side motion to a 
suspended arm, as illustrated by Fig. 29^, which shows the ther- 
mostat with the screen removed. The wires from the battery are 
connected to the two posts shown just above the indicator of the 





Fig. 293. — ^IVIinneapolis 
thermostat. 



Fig. 294.— Interior of Min- 
neapolis thermostat. 



thermostat. Needle-pointed adjustable set screws pass through 
these posts, the pendant blade hanging between them. As the 
temperature of the room rises, the side motion of the pendant 
moves it against the point of one set screw, forming a contact, 
which closes the electric circuit. As the circuit is closed an 
electric current flows through the magnets of the motor, releas- 
ing the brake, and the driving shaft of the motor makes a half 
revolution. As the temperature of the room lowers, the project- 
ing arm or pendant is, by contraction of the circular blade. 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



311 



thrown against the opposite pin, when the operation above de- 
scribed is reversed. The releasing feature of the motor consists 
of a pair of magnets, which become energized and attract an 
armature. The movement of the armature releases the motor, 
and when it starts, the armature is secured until the driving shaft 
of the motor makes a half revolution, when it resumes its normal 
position. 

Temperature controlling devices of the Howard and Min- 
neapolis types are best adapted for operating the dampers of 
the boiler or heater of a low-pressure heating apparatus. 

The Lawler thermostatic regulator shown by Fig. 295 is of 
another type. The expansion of the metal used is multiplied by a 




Fig. 295. — The Lawler thermostat. 



series of levers to a range or force sufficient to operate the dam- 
pers of a steam or hot-water heating apparatus. It is also used, 
with a slight variation of the adjustment of the levers, to control 
the temperature of water in a storage tank for domestic or other 
use, the mixing of water to a certain temperature for baths, or 
for the controlling of the air supply of an indirect heating 
system. 

The Johnson System is one of the oldest of the systems of 
automatic control of temperatures. The motive force employed 
is compressed air, which is supplied by an automatic air com- 
pressor and stored in a tank. For ordinary service a hydraulic 



312 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

air compressor, Fig. 296, is used. This is connected to the water 
supply to the building and to some convenient waste pipe. It is 
noiseless in operation and automatically keeps up a pressure of 



iliia 




Fig. 297. — Johnson 
thermostat. 




Fig. 298. — Mechanism of 
Johnson thermostat. 



Fig. 296. — Johnson hy- 
draulic air compressor. 

from ten to fifteen pounds. Compressors are also furnished which 
operate by electric power and by steam. 

A thermostat is placed on the wall of each room in which the 
heat is to be regulated. The external appearance of this thermo- 
stat is shown by Fig. 297 ; the interior mechanism is shown by 
Fig. 298. The strip E is composed of two metals, soldered to- 
gether. Observe that the top of this strip is fastened to D ; 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION 



SIS 



the bottom, forming a hook, is fastened to the frame of the ther- 
mostat. A variation of but two degrees in the temperature of 
a room will cause this little tongue to expand, moving D and 
operating the valve of the air pipe. Two air pipes are connected 
to the upper part of the thermostat, one of them being the direct 
connection from the air main from the storage tank. The other 
connects the thermostat w^ith the air motor of the valve at the 
radiator or w4th the damper to be operated, thus directly oper- 
ating the valve and limiting the steam supply at each radiator 
or the flow of hot water to it, if it be a hot-water system, or the 
air-mixing dampers should it be a blower system. 

In order that the operation of the diaphragm valve may 
be clearly understood we show by Fig. 299 a sectional view of 





Fig. 300.— Exterior of dia- 
phragm radiator valve. 



Fig. 299. — Interior of diaphragm radiator valve. 

it. D and E show the openings for supply pipe and radi- 
ator connections. C is the seat of the valve and B the disc. 
Up to this point the body of the valve is built the same as 
an ordinary radiator valve. The frame supporting the dia- 
phragm is adjusted to the valve immediately below the stuff- 
ing box. A spring is slipped on the valve spindle and an oval 
shell, with air opening A, is fastened to the saddle or frame. 



314 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

To the under side of this shell is placed a rubber diaphragm. 
Note that in place of the valve wheel on the top of the valve 
spindle is a curved top fitting against the rubber diaphragm. 
The spring G keeps the valve open until the temperature of 
the room is sufficiently high for the thermostat to open the air 
valve and admit the compressed air to the chamber F, which 
presses down on the diaphragm, closing the valve and holding it 
in this position as long as the temperature of the room is above 





Fig. 301. — ^Double damper for 
round flue. 



Fig. 302. — Double damper for square flue. 

the point desired. When the temperature cools to such a degree 
as to cause the thermostat to act, the air pressure is removed and 
the spring G opens the valve. Fig. 300 shows an exterior 
view of the valve. The action of the thermostat is positive and 
quick in moving the valves. When impelling the dampers of a 
fan or hot-air system, that is, the air supply, another form of 
the thermostat is used, which operates gradually. This is also 
employed on a hot-water heating apparatus. 



TEMPERATURE REGULATION SI 5 

Special forms of thermostats for air ducts, hot-water tank 
supply, etc., etc., are applied in connection with the Johnson pneu- 
matic system, and a system for handling the' valves of a vapor 
system of heating is one of their achievements of later date. 

When handling air or controlling the temperature in the air 
ducts of a " hot and cold " or fan system the air motor is attached 
to the dampers as shown by Fig. 301, which shows a double dam- 
per for a round flue, or by Fig. 302, which shows a double square 
damper. 

The value of a successful system of heat control is not meas- 
ured entirely by the saving in fuel, which is variously estimated 
from 20^ to 35^; the fact of having an apparatus which without 
any thought or action from the occupants of a room or building, 
will automatically maintain the temperature at any desired degree, 
is something on which a value cannot very readily be placed. In 
schools, the teachers are relieved from the time lost and attention 
given the heating apparatus, in hospitals the value of an even 
temperature cannot be calculated, while for our homes, churches 
and offices the results from temperature regulation cannot be 
measured. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

Business Methods 

There are certain business methods in connection with the 
estimating on, the contracting for and the instalhng of an appa- 
ratus for heating and ventilation, which should be adopted by 
those already engaged in or about to enter into the business 
of contracting for work of this character. Quite frequently the 
owner of a building will let his heating work to the contractor 
whose bid for the job may not be the lowest, but who has de- 
scribed his proposition and appliances in a clear and concise 
manner, who has submitted a bid or proposal itemizing and enu- 
merating the various portions of the apparatus and the com- 
mendatory features of whose proposition are reinforced by a care- 
fully worded guaranty, covering the character of materials and 
class of workmanship to be furnished on the work. Such a business 
method cannot fail to be compared with that of the contractor 
who, in submitting his figure, simply notes a few words upon a 
letterhead bearing his business title. The owner is justified in 
expecting a higher class of work from that heating man who 
approaches him in a business way and with business methods, and 
undoubtedly is willing to pay more for it. 

Estimating 

In this, as in nearly every other business, competition is apt 
to be close and consequently the estimate covering any heating 
work should be carefully prepared, diligence and caution being 
exercised that no important items are omitted. For this purpose 
an estimate book or a carefully arranged sheet should be em- 
ployed. Various large jobs require special items. The ordinary 
job of steam or hot-water heating may be thoroughly covered 
by the sample estimate sheet shown on the following pages. The 

316 






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BUSINESS METHODS 319 

detail represents an estimate for both steam and hot water for a 
brick three-story dwelHng. The rule " 2 — 20 — 200 " is used in 
estimating the amount of radiation required; the prices inserted 
are fictitious, being given for the sole purpose of instructing our 
readers in the right course to pursue in correctly filling out the 
blanks on estimate sheet. 

Having estimated carefully the requirements of the work, size 
of heater, square feet of radiation, etc., etc., and checked over 
the cost figures to insure accuracy, the next step is to prepare 
a proposal and bid to submit to the owner. 

Proposal and Bid 

Printed forms arranged with spaces left blank for filling in 
with a pen may be procured for this purpose. It is our belief, 
however, that a typewritten form of proposal and bid is better 
suited to the purpose, as the printed forms must necessarily con- 
tain much matter which has to be crossed off or eliminated to 
cover certain work, but which, if excluded from the printed form, 
would for certain other work have to be inserted with a pen. We 
submit the following form of proposal as covering such detail as 
is necessary, and the bid attached becomes a legal contract after 
the signatures of both the contractor and the owner are added 
to it. The usual practice is to make two copies, the contractor 
signing both of them before submitting to the owner, who, if he 
accepts the proposition submitted, signs the acceptance clause 
and returns one copy to the heating contractor. 

As no one style of proposal can cover both steam and hot 
water work, we give separate forms for each. Where the dotted 

horizontal line " " occurs it denotes space in which the 

name of the boiler, radiator or other goods to be used, should 
be inserted. 

Proposal and Bid for Steam- Heating Apparatus 

General. — These specifications are intended to cover a com- 
plete low-pressure steam-heating apparatus and it is understood 
that the same will be placed exactly as specified. 

1. Boiler. — I will furnish and erect in basement one No 

...... Steam Boiler. The exterior surface of the boiler, with 



320 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

the exception of the front, to be thoroughly covered with asbestos 
cement. The boiler will be provided with a complete set of trim- 
mings, which shall consist of automatic damper regulator, safety 
valve, water column and gauge, steam gauge and blow-off cock, 
and a complete set of firing tools, consisting of poker, slice bar, 
ash hoe and flue-cleaning brushes. Connection is to be made to 
the boiler from water pipe in basement to supply water to the 
boiler. A %" steam cock or globe valve will be placed on this 
pipe. 

2. Foundation. — A suitable and substantial brick and cement 
foundation for the boiler will be constructed by me. 

3. Smoke Pipe. — I will make necessary smoke connection from 
boiler to chimney by means of a galvanized iron smoke pipe .... 
inches in diameter, made of ... . gauge iron and provided with 
a suitable damper. Owner is to provide a good chimney with 
sufficient draught for the work. 

SCHEDULE OF RADIATION 



First Floor. 

Parlor 

Sitting Room . . 

Library . . 

Dining Room. . 
Reception Hall . 

(Stairs out) 



Second Floor. 

Over Parlor 

Over Sitting Room 

Over Library 

Over Dining Room 

Over Hall 

Bathroom 

Upper Hall (In- 
cluded in Recep- 
tion Hall). 



Third Floor. 
Front Chamber. . 
IMiddle Chamber. 
Rear Chamber. . . 
Bathroom 



1 Rad. 
1 " 
1 " 
1 " 
1 " 



iRad. 
1 



1 Rad. 
1 " 



Ft. Rad. 



50 
60 
50 

85 
1^20 



45 
50 
35 
45 
40 
20 



35 
35 
30 

15 



15 sq. ft, 



Style. 



38" 
38'' 
38" 
38" 
Pin Indirect 



Height. 



38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 



38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 



Tap. 



11^" 

I'M" 
IK" 



iM" 
114" 



iM' 



Tempera- 
ture. 



\H" 


70° 


\}i" 


70° 


\li" 


70° 


1" 


70° 



70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 



70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 



BUSINESS METHODS 321 

4. System of Warming. — Building is to be warmed through- 
out by direct radiators, except as noted in the schedule of radia- 
tion. Radiators are to be of such kinds and heights as indicated. 
Wherever possible radiators will be placed along outside or ex- 
posed walls, their positions conforming, in so far as possible, to 
the wishes of the owner. 

5. Radiation. — I will erect and connect in building the total 
amount of radiating surface as indicated in the schedule given. 
All direct radiators shall be of make, .... or .... col- 
umn and divided and placed as specified. 

6. Radiator Valves. — All radiators shall be connected to 
piping, using a heavy pattern, wood wheel, Jenkins Disc radiator 
valve in each instance, with rough body, nickel plated all over, 
and of a size to conform to the tapping as given for each radi- 
ator in the schedule. 

7. Air Valves. — Each radiator and the steam mains in the 
basement, where necessary, shall be provided with a first-class 
automatic air valve of the pattern. 

8. Pipe and Fittings. — The piping is to be erected according 
to what is known as the system of gravity steam heat- 
ing. All main pipes shall have a pitch downward from the boiler 
at least 1/4 " in each 10 feet of length. All branches shall pitch 
upward from mains at least %" in each 5 feet of length. In the 
event of it being necessary to pitch any branches downward, there 
will be a heel drip taken from the bottom of the riser so supplied 
and this drip will be connected into a wet return. All pipe to 
be of full weight and standard quality. All risers to be put up 
plumb and straight and all joints made tight. All fittings to be 
of the best gray iron, flat beaded and having clean-cut taper 
threads. 

9. Hangers. — ^Pipe in basement is to be hung on expansion 
pipe hangers of approved pattern, to allow of perfect freedom 
from expansion and contraction. 

10. Cutting. — I will do all necessary cutting of holes through 
floors and walls for the passage of pipes. Any breakages to walls 
or floors resulting from such work will be remedied by me and 
the walls and floors left in first-class condition. 

11. Floor and Ceiling Plates. — Where pipes pass through 



322 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

floors or ceilings, nickel-plated floor and ceiling plates 

shall be used. In case of pipes coming in contact with woodwork, 
the opening shall be lined with a good quality of tin. 

12. Bronzing and Painting. — All exposed piping and radia- 
tors above the basement will be given a priming coat of paint, 
followed by a coat of gold or aluminum bronze, as may be desired 
by the owner. All basement piping and all portions of the 
boiler uncovered shall be painted with black asphaltum. 

13. Pipe Covering.— AW steam pipes in the basement, both 
flow and return, will be covered with low-pressure sec- 
tional pipe covering. Same to be neatly and securely fastened 
with brass bands placed three to each length of covering. All 
fittings to be covered with magnesia-asbestos plastic cement. 

14. Setting of Direct-Indirect Radiators. — I shall provide 
box bases with suitable dampers for all direct-indirect radiators 
and shall provide proper wall boxes to be set by the mason in the 
walls of the building. On connecting the radiator to the piping 
will make proper connection from the wall box to the box base 
by means of a galvanized iron duct or sleeve. 

15. Hanging Indirect Radiators. — All indirect radiators shall 
be suspended from the ceiling of the basement by suitable wrought 
iron hangers, at such a height that the bottom of the radiators 
will be at least 18" above the water line of boiler. All stacks of 
indirect radiation so hung shall be piped in such a manner as to 
permit of a free and easy circulation throughout their entire 
surfaces. 

16. Casing, Air Ducts, etc. — All indirect radiators shall be 
cased with a boxing made of heavy galvanized iron, constructed 
in such a manner that a portion of the bottom may be readily 
removed for cleaning purposes. The casing shall fit snugly 
around the sides of the radiators in order that the cold air shall 
pass between the surfaces instead of around them. The cold-air 
ducts will be made of galvanized iron and provided with a suitable 
damper and will be of such sizes as are necessary to supply the 
proper amount of cold air to the radiators. The hot-air duct 
shall be connected from the top of the casing to the register 
boxing in floor above, 

17. Registers and Register Boxes. — All registers shall be of 



BUSINESS METHODS 323 

design. The area of the openings in same will not be 

less than the area of the warm-air duct. Registers will be set 
firmly in the wall or floor and flush with the same. Register boxes 
made of bright I. C. tin shall be provided for each of the register 
openings. 

(The clauses 14, 15, 16 and 17 should be omitted except where 
direct-indirect or indirect radiators are specified in a contract.) 

18. In General. — The material used in the construction of this 
apparatus will be new and of the best quality and the work put 
up by skilled workmen. When the apparatus is completed it will 
be fired up and tested in the presence of the owner or his repre- 
sentative and left in good order ready for use. 

19. Guaranty. — I guarantee this work in every jespect: that 
when completed it shall be free from mechanical defects and noise- 
less in operation, and that after the apparatus shall have been 
accepted by the owner, any part thereof shall fail to accomplish 
the guaranty herein contained by reason of any defect due to 
my workmanship or the materials furnished, I agree to remedy 
such defects at once at my expense. It is understood that the 
term " defect " as above used shall not be construed as embracing 
such imperfections as would naturally follow improper treatment, 
accident, or the wear and tear of use. 

20. Bid. — I agree to furnish the material herein specified and 
do the work as herein enumerated for the sum of Seven Hundred 
and Thirty-nine Dollars and thirty-four cents ($739.34). 

Payments to be made as follows : One third when boiler Is 
erected and material delivered on the job, one third when radiators 
are delivered and connected to the system, and the remaining one 
third after job shall have been completed and tested. 

(Signed) John H. Jones. 

21. Acceptance. 

To John H. Jones, Heating Contractor. 

I hereby accept your proposal and bid for installing a com- 
plete steam-heating apparatus in my residence and for the same 
agree to pay you Seven Hundred and Thirty-nine Dollars and 
thirty-four cents ($739.34). 

Payments to be made as above specified. 
(Date) (Signed) R. D. Blank. 



SM PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

Proposal and Bid for Hot-Water Heating Apparatus 

General. — These specifications are intended to cover a com- 
plete hot-water heating apparatus and it is understood that the 
same will be placed exactly as specified. 

1. Heater. — I will furnish and erect in basement one No 

Hot-water Heater. The exterior surface of the boiler, 

with the exception of the front, to be thoroughly covered with 
asbestos cement. The heater will be provided with a complete 
set of firing tools, consisting of poker, slice bar, ash hoe, and flue- 
cleaning brushes. 

2. Foundation. — A suitable and substantial brick and cement 
foundation for the heater will be constructed by me. 

3. Smoke Pipe. — I will make necessary smoke connection from 
heater to chimney by means of a galvanized iron smoke pipe .... 
inches in diameter, made of .... gauge iron and provided with 
a suitable damper. Owner is to provide a good chimney with 
sufficient draught for the work. 



SCHEDULE OF RADIATION 



First Floor. 

Parlor 

Sitting Room . . 

Library 

Dining Room. . 
Reception Hall. 



Second Floor. 

Over Parlor 

Over Sitting Room 

Over Library 

Over Dining Room 

Over Hall 

Bathroom 

Upper Hall (In- 
cluded in Recep- 
tion Hall) 



1 Rad. 
1 " 

1 " 

2 Rads. 
1 Rad. 



Third Floor. 
Front Chamber. . 
Middle Chamber. 
Rear Chamber. . . 
Bathroom 



Rad. 



1 Rad. 



Ft. Rad. 



80 

95 

80 

135 

200 



70 
80 
55 
70 
65 
30 



55 
55 
50 
20 



1,140 sq.ft. 



Style. 



Height. 



38'^ 
38" 
38" 
38" 
Pin Indirect 



38'' 



38" 
38" 
38" 



38" 
38" 
38" 
38" 



Tap. 



V-Z" 
i]Z" 



1" 
1" 



Tempera- 
ture. 



70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 



70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 



70° 
70° 
70° 
70° 



BUSINESS METHODS 325 

4. System of Warming. — Building is to be warmed through- 
out by direct radiators, except as noted in the schedule of radia- 
tion. Radiators are to be of such kinds and heights as indicated. 
Wherever possible, radiators will be placed along outside or ex- 
posed walls, their positions conforming, in so far as possible, to 
the wishes of the owner. 

5. Radiation. — I will erect and connect in building the total 
amount of radiating surface as indicated in the schedule given. 
All direct radiators shall be of make, . . . .or . . . . col- 
umn and divided and placed as specified. 

6. Altitude Gauge and Thermometer. — I shall place on the 
heater an altitude gauge in order to show at the heater the height 
of the water in the expansion tank. I shall also place on the 
heater a first-class hot-water thermometer. 

7. Expansion Tank and Gauge. — I shall place on the work a 
heavy galvanized steel expansion tank of suitable size, with gauge 
glass complete. Tank to be placed on suitable shelf in bath or 
other room at least three feet above one of the highest radiators 
on the system. Overflow connection shall be made through roof. 

8. Water Connection. — I will make necessary water connec- 
tion from water pipe in basement to bottom and rear of heater 
and place on this connection a suitable globe valve or stopcock. 

9. Radiator Valves and Union Elbows. — Each radiator will 
be connected to the system of piping with a rough body, wood 
wheel, quick opening hot-water radiator valve with union, to be 
of heavy pattern and nickel plated all over. Return ends of 
radiators to be connected to return pipes by the use of a heavy 
pattern, nickel-plated brass union elbow. Sizes of valves and 
elbows to conform to the tappings as given in above schedule of 
radiation. 

10. Air Valves. — Each radiator shall be provided with a lock- 
shield nickel-plated brass air valve operated with a key. 

11. Pipe and Fittings. — System of piping used shall be the 
gravity return system of hot-water piping. All mains shall pitch 
upward from boiler at least 1" in each 10 feet of length, and all 
branches shall pitch upward from mains at least 1" in each 5 
feet of length. All flow and return mains to be put up plumb and 
straight and all joints made tight. AU pipe to be of best quality 



326 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

wrought iron, of standard weight, and all fittings to be of the 
best gray iron of heavy pattern, flat beaded, having clean-cut 
taper threads. 

12. Hangers. — Pipe in basement is to be hung on expansion 
pipe hangers of approved pattern, to allow of perfect freedom 
from expansion and contraction. 

13. Cutting. — I will do all necessary cutting of holes through 
floors and walls for the passage of pipes. Any breakages to walls 
or floors resulting from such work will be remedied by me and the 
walls and floors left in first-class condition. 

14. Floor and Ceiling Plates. — Where pipes pass through 

floors or ceilings, nickel-plated floor and ceiling plates 

shall be used. In case of pipes coming in contact with woodwork, 
the opening shall be lined with a good quality of tin. 

15. Bronzing and Painting. — All exposed piping and radi- 
ators above the basement will be given a priming coat of paint, 
followed by a coat of gold or aluminum bronze, as may be selected 
by the owner. All basement piping and all portions of the boiler 
uncovered shall be painted with black asphaltum. 

16. Pipe Covering. — All pipes in the basement, both flow and 

return, will be covered with low-pressure sectional pipe 

covering. Same to be neatly and securely fastened with brass 
bands placed three to each length of the covering. All fittings 
to be covered with magnesia-asbestos plastic cement. 

17. Setting of Direct-Indirect Radiators. — I shall provide 
box bases with suitable dampers for all direct-indirect radiators 
and shall provide proper wall boxes to be set by the mason in 
the walls of the building. On connecting the radiator to the 
piping I will make proper connection from the wall box to the 
box base by means of a galvanized iron duct or sleeve. 

18. Hanging Indirect Radiators. — All indirect radiators shall 
be suspended from the ceiling of the basement by suitable wrought- 
iron hangers. The connections to the same shall be made in such 
a manner as to permit of a perfect circulation throughout their 
entire surfaces. 

19. Casing, Air Ducts, etc. — All indirect radiators shall be 
cased with a boxing made of heavy galvanized iron, constructed in 
such a manner that a portion of the bottom may be readily removed 



BUSINESS METHODS 327 

for cleaning purposes. The casing shall fit snugly around the 
sides of the radiators in order that the cold air shall pass between 
the surfaces instead of around them,. The cold-air ducts will be 
made of galvanized iron and provided with a suitable damper and 
will be of such sizes as are necessary to supply the proper amount 
of cold air to the radiators. The hot-air duct shall be connected 
from the top of the casing to the register boxing in floor above. 

20. Registers and Register Boxes. — All registers shall be of 

design. The area of the openings in same will not be 

less than the area of the warm-air duct. Registers will be set 
firmly in the wall or floor and flush with the same. Register 
boxes made of bright I. C. tin shall be provided for each of the 
register openings. 

(The clauses 17, 18, 19 and 20 should be omitted, except where 
direct-indirect or indirect radiators are specified in a contract.) 

21. In General. — The material used in the construction of this 
apparatus shall be new and of the best quality and the work put 
up by skilled workmen. When the apparatus is completed it will 
be fired up and tested in the presence of the owner or his repre- 
sentative and left in good order ready for use. 

22. Guaranty. — I guarantee this work in every respect, that 
when completed it shall be free from mechanical defects and noise- 
less in operation, and that after the apparatus shall have been 
accepted by the owner, any part thereof shall fail to accomplish 
the guaranty herein contained by reason of any defect due to my 
workmanship or the materials furnished, I agree to remedy such 
defects at once at my expense. It is understood that the term 
" defect " as above used shall not be construed as embracing 
such imperfections as would naturally follow improper treatment, 
accident, or the wear and tear of use. 

23. Bid. — I agree to furnish the material herein specified and 
do the work as herein enumerated for the sum of Nine Hundred 
and Ninety-one Dollars and fifty-two cents ($991.52). 

Payments to be made as follows : One third when boiler is 
erected and material delivered on the job, one third when radia- 
tors are delivered and connected to the system, and the remain- 
ing one third after job shall have been completed and tested. 

(Signed) John H. Jones. 



S28 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

24. Acceptance. 
To John H. Jones, Heating Contractor. 

1 hereby accept your proposal and bid for installing a com- 
plete hot-water heating apparatus in my residence and for the 
same agree to pay you Nine Hundred and Ninety-one Dollars and 
fifty-two cents ($991.52). 

Payments to be made as above specified. 
(Date) (Signed) R. D. Blank. 

Special Features of Contracts 

Should there be any special materials or extra work de- 
manded, each additional item should be made the subject of a 
special paragraph and incorporated in the specifications. The 
following include some such items as might be necessary: 
Radiator boards. 

Temporary use of apparatus (charge for same), 
Coil in heater or boiler for heating water for domestic use. 
Domestic water supply where a tank with steam coil in same 
is provided for use with a steam boiler. 

There should also be figured such " extras " on the work, 
as additional charges for low radiators, peculiar decoration of 
radiators, etc., etc. Again, it is customary for some contractors 
to insert a clause in the specifications relative to the construc- 
tion of the building. For example, if it should be afterwards 
discovered that the plans of the job or the building to be heated 
or the information respecting same, which had been received 
from the owner or his representative, did not conform to the 
building or plans of same as figured, the heating contractor 
charges for any alterations occasioned by such misrepresenta- 
tion as an " extra." Some heating contractors desire to insert 
a paragraph in the specifications to the effect that if when the 
work is partially finished or nearly completed, delay shall arise, 
due to no fault of the heating contractor, he shall be entitled to 
receive settlement, the same as though the work was entirely 
completed, except that a certain percentage is allowed to be 
withheld pending the actual completion of the job. Matters of 
the above kind are sure to arise on heating contracts and it 
is well to make mention of the same in the specifications in cases 
where the heating contractor considers it essential. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Care of Heating Apparatus 

The life and efficiency of a steam or hot water heating appa- 
ratus of whatever nature depend largely upon the care and at- 
tention given it, both when in service and during the summer 
period when the apparatus is not in use. 

Summer Care 

It is when the apparatus is inoperative that the greatest dam- 
age to it is wrought by disintegration due to rust and the chemical 
action of soot and ashes. It is, therefore, a good plan as soon 
as the season for artificial heating is past and the fire is allowed 
to go out in the heater, to thoroughly clean the grate and ash pit 
of all ashes. Remove the casing of the heater, if of portable 
construction. If not so provided, open all clean-out doors and 
thoroughly clean all heating and flue surfaces with a steel brush. 
Remove the smoke connection and clean it in a thorough manner. 
Find a dry place in which to store the smoke pipe for the sum- 
mer. Open all doors of the heater — clean-out, fire and draught 
doors — and allow them to remain open until the fire is again built 
in the heater. There has been much discussion, pro and con, as 
to the advisability of emptying the steam boiler or the hot-water 
heating apparatus during the summer season. Many engineers 
and heater manufacturers contend that the apparatus should be 
left full of water ; others affirming just as positively that it should 
not be. Our own opinion, based upon our personal experience 
together with that of others, is that it is well to empty the system 
and free it of all moisture. We advocate the following procedure : 

Open the draw-off connection to the sewer, or with the use 

of pails drain all water from the boiler or system. Open all air 

329 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

vents and valves in order that none of the water may be entrained 
in the piping or radiators. Then build a light wood fire in 
the heater and evaporate all remaining water and moisture from 
the system, allowing all valves and air vents to remain open until 
the time has arrived when the use of the apparatus is again 
necessary, when the boiler or system can be refilled with fresh 
water. 

By following the directions given the inner surfaces of the 
apparatus may rust slightly, hut will not scale and the bronzing 
or other decoration of radiators and piping will retain its luster 
for a longer period of time. 

Proper Attention to Boilers 

There are some few rules regarding the proper attention to 
a steam boiler or hot-water heater which should be followed in 
order to escape possible damage to the heater and at the same 
time obtain good results from the use of the apparatus. Manu- 
facturers of heaters, as a rule, furnish each customer with direc- 
tions for the care and operation of every heater sold by them. 
There are, however, some few instructions which it may be well 
to repeat. To put the apparatus in condition for service, pro- 
ceed as follows. (We assume that the directions for summer care 
have been followed.) 

Put the smoke connection in position and see that the damper 
in the same works freely. Replace all fixtures, which may have 
previously been removed, in their proper positions. Refill the 
apparatus with water. If a steam boiler, it should be refilled 
to such an extent that the gauge on the water column stands 
about one half full of water. If a hot-water apparatus, the sys- 
tem should be refilled to such an extent that the gauge glass 
on the expansion tank stands about one quarter full of water. 
With a key suitable for the purpose, open each one of the air 
valves, using a small cup to catch any water that may flow out. 
Go over the entire system, freeing each radiator of all air. 

Now examine the gauge on the expansion tank and in all 
probability you will discover that it is necessary to turn more 
water into the system. If a steam apparatus, see that the damper 



MISCELLANEOUS 331 

regulator is properly connected to draught and check doors and 
try the safety valve to insure its working freely. 

The apparatus is now ready for the season's service. In 
building the first fire, note with care that the grate is thor- 
oughly covered with wood before putting on any coal in order 
that no unburnt coal will fall down on the grate and thereby 
deaden the fire. Add a quantity of coal from time to time until 
there is a deep clean fire in the heater. Endeavor to keep it in 
this condition while the apparatus is in use, remembering that 
there is no economy in a shallow fire and that a heater fire pot 
partially filled with ashes or the grate with unburnt coal will not 
give proper results. The ashes should be removed daily to pre- 
vent the possible burning out or warping of the grate. 

Should the water in a steam boiler become low through acci- 
dent or neglect, do not refill the apparatus until the fire has 
been drawn and the boiler castings allowed to cool. With some 
of those boilers constructed with a water base, this course is not 
absolutely necessary, although it is the safer plan to pursue. As 
long as any water shows in the gauge glass of a steam boiler, fresh 
water may be supplied with safety. 

Clean all heating and flue surfaces of soot at least once each 
week. Soot is a great non-conductor of heat and the boilers 
whose surfaces are allowed to remain coated with soot, require 
more attention and consume a greater amount of fuel than those 
in which the surfaces are kept thoroughly clean from all accu- 
mulation of such dirt. Steel wire brushes are made for this pur- 
pose and with their proper use a satisfactory cleaning of the 
heating surfaces can be obtained. 

Should a building remain unoccupied during cold weather, 
or should it be closed temporarily in winter, all water should be 
drawn off and evaporated from the system in order to offset 
a possible danger from freezing. 

Removing Oil and Dirt 

In all new heating systems there is more or less oil and dirt 
present. The oil from machined castings, radiator tappings and 
pipe threading will work down into the boiler as will also particles 
of core sand from the radiator and boiler castings. The oil with 



332 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

considerable dirt forms a scum on the surface of the water in 
the boiler, causing it to foam and at the same time preventing 
the generation of steam. This action frequently produces an un- 
steady water-line and hinders the proper working of the apparatus. 

The remedy for this condition is to blow off the boiler while 
under pressure. This should be done several times at intervals 
of a week or more until the oil has been thoroughly removed. 

To successfully blow off a steam boiler, close all radiator 
valves and build a good wood fire in the heater, generating a 
pressure of from ten to fifteen pounds. Open the blow-off valve 
and let the pressure of the steam blow all water out of the boiler. 
With it this water will carry most of the dirt and the greasy 
scum or oil. Allow the fire to burn out and the castings to 
cool, after which the boiler can be again refilled and the fire 
started. 

The blow-off is usually located at the bottom and rear of the 
boiler and as much of the oil will adhere to the inner surfaces 
of the boiler, as the water settles or is forced out, it is often 
necessary to repeat this cleaning operation several times. 

Some manufacturers of sectional boilers, recognizing the ex- 
tent of the trouble due to the presence of oil, have provided their 
boilers with a blow-off located at the rear a few inches below the 
water line. Where such an opening is furnished, the scum and 
oil are readily blown out from the surface of the water, the ac- 
cumulation of dirt being removed through the draw-off cock at 
the bottom of the boiler. The blow-off opening should be at least 
1%" in diameter, and a still larger opening is preferable. Such 
a provision is styled a " surface blow-off " by some fitters and 
engineers. 

Summer Tests to Determine Efficiency 

Although the fact is not generally recognized by the con- 
tracting fitter, a heating apparatus may be tested as to its effi- 
ciency on a warm summer's day as well as in midwinter. Prof. 
R. C. Carpenter has laid down a rule which the writer has for 
some years followed in actual practice and we can, therefore, 
testify and vouch to the correctness of it. The table given shows 
in Column Four (Resulting Temperature of Room) the tempera- 



MISCELLANEOUS 



SSS 



tures which a room would have for various degrees of heat out- 
side, provided the radiation placed was sufficient to warm the room 
to 70° in zero weather with three poun'ds pressure of steam or 
220° temperature. 

TABLE XXVIII 



Temperature 
Outside Air. 


Coefficient Heat 

per Square Foot 

per Hour per 

Degree. 


Total Heat per 

Square Foot 

per Hour. 


Resulting Tem- 
perature of 
Room. 


Difference Tem- 
perature Radia- 
tor and Room. 


-10 


1.85 


288 


64.7 


155.3 





1.8 


270 


70 


150 


10 


1.75 


253 


75.1 


144.9 


20 


1.7 


236 


81 


139 


30 


1.65 


218 


86.5 


133.5 


40 


1.6 


203 


93.1 


128 


50 


1.55 


188 


. 98.7 


122.5 


60 


1.5 


172 


104.7 


116.5 


70 


1.45 


158 


110.5 


109.5 


80 


1.4 


142 


117.1 


102.9 


90 


1.35 


130.5 


123.5 


96.5 


100 


1.3 


117 


130.3 


89.7 



Example showing application of Table: To determine by a test 
of the apparatus, when weather is 60°, whether a guaranty to 
heat to 70° in zero weather is maintained, operate the apparatus 
as though in regular use and note the average temperature of 
the room. If the room has a temperature equal to or in excess of 
104.7° F., it would have a temperature of 70° in zero weather, 
all other conditions, such as wind, position of windows, etc., being 
the same as on the day of the test. 



Care of Tools 

In order to perform good work rapidly it is necessary to have 
serviceable and sharp tools, particularly wrenches and those for 
pipe cutting apd threading. Judging from the author's personal 
experience the old axiom " A workman is known by his tools " 
was apparently never intended to apply to a journeyman steam 
fitter for, as a class, the ordinary steam fitter can break, mutilate 
or otherwise destroy the efficiency of a tool quicker and with more 
reckless abandon than any other tradesman we have ever come in 
contact with in spite of the fact that there is absolutely no other 
trade where good and sharp tools are more necessary for efficient 



334 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

and rapid work than that of pipe fitting. There are some shop 
rules governing the care and use of tools which might be adopted 
by all heating contractors to good advantage. 

First, a complete kit of tools should be furnished each jour- 
neyman fitter and he should be charged with and held personally 
responsible for them and their condition. A steam fitter cannot 
be expected to make good time on work when he is furnished 
with wrenches that will not " bite " nor take proper hold of a 
pipe until after possibly three or four trials. Neither can good, 
clean threads be cut with dull or imperfect dies. For the reasons 
given these tools should have frequent and careful scrutiny by 
the master fitter or his shop boss. 

Second, the fitter should be instructed to allow his helper to 
spend the last fifteen or thirty minutes of each w^orking day in 
gathering together and cleaning all tools which have been in use 
and all broken or dulled tools should be promptly returned to the 
shop. It is well to have a tool chest for each individual kit of 
tools. Iron chests, made for this purpose, are models of con- 
venience. 

To a contractor doing any considerable amount of work a 
pipe-cutting and threading machine will pay for itself in the labor 
saved on one or two fair-sized jobs. It is well to have one large 
machine for shop use and one or more portable machines cut- 
ting and threading up to 4" for use on the job. 

Labor Saving Suggestions 

There are some methods of saving time and money on contract 
v/ork which are worthy of consideration. Do not allow the fitter 
to do the unskilled work of a laborer. Large pipe should be 
handled by laborers and the radiation on a job should be car- 
ried into and distributed throughout the building by the teamster 
and one or two laborers under the direction of the fitter or in 
accordance with an itemized list furnished the driver. 

Do not allow the cutting off of a short piece of pipe without 
first threading one end of it. These short pieces of pipe may 
then be returned to the shop and the other end of each piece 
threaded by a helper or unskilled workman. 

We have found it excellent practice to send to each job a 



MISCELLANEOUS 335 

box each of short pieces of pipe in sizes 1", 1%" and 1%" with 
both ends threaded. These may be laid out on the basement 
floor in a place conveniently near to the pipe vise, to be quickly 
measured and used by the fitter in order to save the cutting 
of short measurements. As soon as the vise and bench are in 
position the helper should arrange all fittings on the floor in 
rows according to their sizes and in such a place near the vise 
that they can be reached rapidly by the fitter. A pad of paper 
on which to make memoranda of measures or supplies needed from 
the shop should be tacked up close to the work bench. 

We would urge the advisability of making plans of all work> 
plans which will show in a general way the sizes of pipe and 
fittings and the method of running same and the manner of 
making the different connections. Such plans should be ad- 
hered to by the fitter as closely as the conditions of the work 
will permit. 

Adopt a system for handling all work and the results will 
show time and labor saved and increased profits accruing from 
the contracts. 

Bronzing, Painting and Decoration 

There are some few facts relating to the bronzing or paint- 
ing of radiators or radiating surfaces of a heating plant which 
the steam fitter should be fully posted on and thoroughly un- 
derstand. It is well to give all direct radiators or exposed pip- 
ing above the basement a priming coat of paint before applying 
the bronze, as the bronze will then cover more surface, look 
brighter and retain its luster for a longer period of time. 
Where gold bronze is to be used, a priming coat of yellow ochre 
is the best to apply ; where aluminum bronze is made use of the 
priming coat should be white. If color bronzes are desired, the 
priming coats should conform as nearly as possible to the tints 
of the bronze. The priming coat should not contain oil of any 
kind, but should be mixed with japan and turpentine. 

One pound of gold bronze will cover 150 ft. of iron sur- 
face not primed and 200 ft. of primed surface. Each four pounds 
of gold bronze requires one gallon of liquid. 

As one pound of aluminum bronze powder is more than twice 



336 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

as bulky as gold bronze, it will cover more than double the sur- 
face, the amount varying from 350 to 400 ft. of surface. 

Uncovered basement piping should be painted with black 
japan or asphaltum varnish. 

In painting the piping in greenhouses, do not use tar paints 
or asphaltum, as the odor or fumes given off, when heated, will 
injure the plants. The best policy is to leave unpainted all 
greenhouse piping. However, in case it is necessary, use lamp- 
black mixed with turpentine and a very little boiled linseed oil. 

In mixing colors to harmonize with other decorations, the 
following table will prove useful as a guide. The first color 
named in each combination is the base or predominant shade. Re- 
member to use only japan and turpentine in your mixing. 

Gray: Use white lead and lampblack. 

Buff : Use white lead, yellow ochre and red. 

Orange: Use yellow and red. 

Snuff: Use yellow and Vandyke brown. 

Pearl: Use white, black and blue. 

Drab: Use white, raw and burnt umber; or white, yellow 
ochre, red and black. 

Fawn: Use white, yellow and red. 

Flesh: L^sc white, yellow ochre and vermilion. 

Gold: Use white, stone ochre and red. 

Copper: Use red, yellow and black. 

Lemon: Use white and yellow. 

Pea Green: Use white and chrome green. 

Bronze-Green: Use chrome green, black and yellow; or white, 
yellow ochre, red and black. 

In tinting use nearly as much of the base or first-named color, 
as is desired and tint with the following named or supplementary 
colors. 

Colored enameled paints for the decoration of radiators may 
be procured. However, we advise against their use, as they tend 
to subtract from the efficiency of the radiating surfaces by filling 
and sealing the pores of the iron, thus making necessary a larger 
amount of heating surface than would otherwise be required. 

Care should be taken to remove all oil or grease from the 
surfaces to be painted or bronzed. 



MISCELLANEOUS 337 

Guaranty 

It may not be amiss to make mention of and comment on the 
above term as used verbally or written in contracts by the heat- 
ing contractor. While, no doubt, the man who is doing honest 
and conscientious work, figuring a sufficiency of radiation and 
plenty of boiler power, has little to fear from the employment 
of this word, there are occasions where it becomes unwise to make 
use of it in a heating contract. In contracts for heating work 
we have noted many times the words " I guarantee satisfaction," 
or " I guarantee to give you a satisfactory job." This word 
" satisfaction " employed in this connection is apt to prove a 
troublesome one and a contractor is making a great mistake when 
he incorporates it in a heating contract. He may be perfectly 
honest in his intentions to give the owner a " satisfactory " job 
and may go to extremes in his endeavors to do perfect work and 
satisfy the owner. However, it leaves a loophole for the sharp 
and unscrupulous man to crawl into and although the job may be 
perfect in its working and effectiveness he may withhold payment 
for it indefinitely on the plea that he is not satisfied. 

If a guaranty is included, it should be carefully worded to 
cover certain specific things. A certain temperature in each room 
in which radiation is placed, a workmanlike job, a boiler or 
heater to be of sufficient size to do the work easily, all or any 
one of these conditions may be safely guaranteed by the con- 
tractor who does good work. 

Architects, unwisely, frequently draw up specifications in 
which certain conditions are set forth and the heating contractor 
is requested to sign a contract of which these specifications become 
a part. He should refuse to affix his name to them until all the 
circumstances are clearly stated. 

Commercially the clause " 70° in zero weather " implies that 
the apparatus must be of sufficient size to heat a certain build- 
ing in which it is placed to this degree when the prevailing tem- 
perature outside the building stands at zero. In many sections 
of this country in which artificial heat is required, the ther- 
mometer may not register a zero weather temperature once in 
five years or more, and therefore should the architect or owner 



338 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

resort to unprincipled practice the heating contractor would be 
compelled to wait an indefinite time for payment. 

As stated in a former chapter of this book, Prof. Carpenter 
has given a very good and accurate rule for summer or warm 
weather tests and where a 70° clause is inserted in a contract, 
there should be a reference made to this or some other equally 
good rule governing a test which will be acceptable alike to owner 
and contractor. 

Quite frequently we find an architect or owner who requires 
the heating contractor to give a bond that the apparatus when 
completed will perform a certain work. Where a bond of this 
nature is insisted upon, the contractor should be paid in full the 
moment his work is finished. We have always regarded the fur- 
nishing of a bond as tending to operate against the best interests 
of the owner. In his anxiety to have the work completed at as 
low a price as possible, he may accept the low bid of a con- 
tractor without responsibility or reputation, require a bond from 
him and save a few dollars on the original cost of the contract. 
When difficulty arises, as is quite likely in such cases, and it 
becomes necessary to bring suit, the expenses incident to such 
action more than offset the amount originally saved and the 
owner has the further trouble, discomfort and expense of the tem- 
porary maintenance of an unsatisfactory job. Had the work 
been awarded to a contractor of experience and reputation no 
such trouble would be experienced. 

It would seem that the over-anxiety of some heating con- 
tractors to secure work is largely responsible for many of the 
conditions we have enumerated. In some instances they seem 
willing to agree to anything or to sign any document in order to 
obtain a contract, and this of itself should furnish a danger 
signal to both architect and owner, as the responsible man will 
not affix his name or agree to anything which he cannot con- 
sistently perform, or which is against his best interests. 

In examining the contracts of some heating contractors of 
large experience, we find some clauses included which are well 
worth our consideration. In connection with the " Acceptance " 
clause we find the following: 

" Upon notification from us that the work herein specified is 



MISCELLANEOUS 339 

complete, it shall be promptly inspected and accepted or rejected, 
so that our man, while still on the premises, may, without delay, 
complete it or remedy any defect that may appear, after which 
you are to give said man written acceptance of the work herein 
specified, it being agreed that such acceptance is not a waiver of 
our guaranties. 

" If not inspected immediately on completion, the apparatus 
will be left in your charge, and our responsibility for it ceases. 

"Failure to so promptly inspect and accept or reject said 
w^ork shall be construed as an acceptance of it, and shall entitle 
us to payment according to contract." 

Or this : 

" The apparatus, in so far as the mechanical work thereof 
and the construction of the same are concerned, shall be considered 
as accepted immediately upon completion. If it be found that the 
same does not comply with said specifications, notice thereof shall 
be given in writing immediately to the heating contractor. 

" It is distinctly understood that no payments or part thereof 
are to be delayed on account of lack of cold weather in which to 
test the heating apparatus, as the guaranty herein contained is 
binding upon the heating contractor as to the fulfillment of the 
contract. It is further understood that such acceptance shall not 
be deemed a waiver of our guaranty as to efficiency of the heat- 
ing apparatus." 

As to the forms of guaranties, we have given in the chapter 
on " Business Methods " a short concise form. Some others, 
which in certain cases cover more of the detail of the work, are 
as follows : 

(a) " We hereby guarantee that the apparatus shall be noise- 
less in operation, of ample capacity and, under proper conditions 
of firing and management, to be capable of warming all rooms in 
which radiators are placed to — degrees in coldest weather. 

(b) " The apparatus is guaranteed for a period of one year 
from this date against any defects of w^orkmanship or materials. 
Should any defect or deficiency develop, we will, upon notice, 
make good such defect or deficiency at our expense." 

Or this : 

" When the apparatus herein proposed to be furnished is 



340 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

completed in accordance with the conditions hereof, we guarantee 
that it will be so constructed as to permit steam to circulate in all 
its parts with — pressure thereon, or any higher pressure; and 
that the said apparatus shall be capable of continuously warm- 
ing all parts of said building that are enumerated in Section 8 
of this proposal (schedule of radiation and temperatures) to the 
temperature mentioned therein when the outside temperature is 
— degrees below zero; further, the buildings and apparatus 
being kept in repair, and the apparatus properly operated, there 
shall be no snapping, cracking or pounding in the piping or 
radiators. We further guarantee all materials furnished shall be 
free from all defects for a period of one year from the date of this 
instrument." 

Several of the guaranties examined contain this or a similar 
clause : 

" The chimney furnished by the owner shall be large enough 
to be capable of passing sufficient air to insure rapid combustion 
of fuel. We will not be responsible for failure of apparatus due 
to insufficient draught." 

A steam or hot-water heating apparatus or a ventilating 
apparatus is designed to secure certain results under certain given 
conditions and these should be clearly stated in and be made the 
subject matter of all conditions and guaranties of a contract. 

Boiler Explosions 

The danger arising from the explosion of a low-pressure 
cast-iron steam or hot-water heater is very remote, yet it is a 
feature which causes fear in the mind of every nervous person 
whose duty it is to attend to such a heater or to be in any 
manner brought into close contact with it. While it is a fact 
that many boilers explode, the percentage is small, even consider- 
ing the vast number of boilers used for generating steam for 
power purposes as well as for heating. There is no question but 
that excess of pressure is the cause of all explosions ; we mean 
by this, excess over the ability of the boiler to stand. For in- 
stance, a boiler may be built originally to withstand a pressure 
of 250 pounds, but through frequent scaling, or from rupture, 
or some- other damaging cause, may become weakened to such an 



MISCELLANEOUS 341 

extent that 100 lbs. would be an excess of pressure for it to carry 
with safety. 

Low water in such a boiler, with the consequent rapid vapor- 
izing into steam, due to a hot fire, would cause it to explode, 
and were the explosion to occur instantly it w^ould be accom- 
panied with disastrous results. If, on the contrary, there were 
a gradual tearing of the iron at the weak point or gradual open- 
ing of the rupture, no very great damage might occur. 

Most of the disastrous explosions of heating boilers have 
occurred where boilers of the tubular (vertical or horizontal) or 
fire-box type were used and but few have happened with cast-iron 
boilers. 

There are many theories as to the causes of boiler explosions, 
and when applied to boilers employed for warming, the principal 
one seems to be that the explosion is caused by admitting cold 
water into red-hot boilers. When for some unaccountable reason 
the boiler has been drained or the water in it lowered well below 
the crown-sheet surface, the sudden admission of a quantity of 
cold water will cause trouble; not necessarily an explosion, for 
we do not believe this would be the result once in ten times. If 
a cast-iron boiler, the sections would undoubtedly crack; if a 
wrought-iron boiler, a rupturing of the plates and riveting would 
likely result, requiring in either case extensive repairs. 

We have alluded especially to steam boilers as being liable 
to explode under certain conditions, but, as a matter of fact, the 
most dangerous explosions of heating apparatus might occur with 
a hot-water system. The pent-up or stored energy in a hot-water 
apparatus is very much greater than that from steam at an equal 
volume. The sudden releasing of this force, due to a break in the 
apparatus, is liable to cause great damage, including a possible 
loss of life. 

Prevention of Explosions 

In the operation of a steam-heating apparatus only ordinary 
caution is necessary to prevent a rupture or explosion of the 
boiler, provided the usual safeguards are furnished with the ap- 
paratus. These safeguards are, first, a safety valve of adequate 
size, kept operative by frequent testing; second, the providing of 



S42 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

a fusible plug, which should be placed at a point just below the 
low water-line of the boiler, that is, the lowest level at which the 
water may stand with safety; third, the provision of a sediment 
cock at a low point, where sediment (mud, sand, etc.) may be 
frequently drawn from the boiler. 

Should valves be placed on the flow and return pipes at the 
boiler, they must be used with caution. Never entirely close the 
valves on the steam main without checking and thereby cooling 
the fire. Never close all valves on the return pipes while the valves 
on steam-supply pipes are open, or when heat is on the building. 

We have known cases where a slothful janitor left the valves 
on the returns closed, with the result that the rapid condensing of 
the steam and collection of the condensation in the returns low- 
ered the water in the boiler below the level of safety. 

When this condition occurs, or should the water become low 
from any other cause, do not open the valves on the returns and 
admit the water of condensation, which has cooled, and do not 
admit any other supply of cold water until, as a precautionary 
measure, the fire has been dampened or drawn and the boiler 
allowed to cool for two hours. 

In operating a hot-water heating apparatus but few precau- 
tions are necessary, provided the contractor in erecting the work 
has exercised due care. There should be no valves placed on the 
expansion-tank connections. The tank should be placed in a 
warm room in order that these connections will not freeze. If of 
necessity the tank must be located in a cold spot, it should be 
circulated in a manner illustrated in a previous chapter of this 
book, in order to prevent freezing. With the tank open to the 
atmosphere the attendant of a hot-water boiler may feel ab- 
solutely safe as far as any danger or damage from explosion is 
concerned. 

Utilizing Waste Heat 

Wasted heat units in the process of heating or manufacturing 
often represent an expense for fuel, which, if saved, would ma- 
terially lessen the cost of production and add to the profits of the 
business. Many of our readers are no doubt more or less familiar 
with the old methods of heating dryers, dry kilns, etc., by the 
use of steam coils. 



MISCELLANEOUS 343 

The waste of heat in an ordinary heating apparatus, due to 
poor draught or an imperfect chimney, we have commented upon 
and shown the advantages and saving accruing from perfect com- 
bustion and a properly constructed chimney. We have also 
shown the benefit resulting from the use of the exhaust steam 
from engines, pumps, etc. In this chapter we wish to make 
mention of the saving effected by a proper use of fans. 

The trouble encountered in using the old style of dryer and 
heat from steam coils was principally due to the slow and often 
uncertain movement of the air in the dryer. In drying lumber, 
bricks and pottery the circulation of air is as important as the 
heat provided. The same is true regarding the drying of manu- 
factured wooden articles, of laundry and all the various woolen 
and cotton products. High temperatures are maintained in the 
dry-room or kiln and under the original methods of drying by 
steam the hotter the dry-room the quicker and the cheaper the 
desired results could be obtained. 

The character of the work, that is to say, the nature of the 
material to be dried and the temperature necessary to be main- 
tained govern the method of installing the apparatus. There are 
tAvo general methods of utilizing waste heat for this purpose, the 
first, the utilizing of exhaust steam in heating coils within the 
dryer, air being forced into and through it by a pulley-driven 
fan located at one end of the dryer. The second is that which 
is adapted for the drying of bricks or pottery, where the waste 
heat from cooling kilns is drawn through ducts to a fan, which 
in turn delivers it, in such quantities as desired, to the dryer. 
An exhaust fan is located at the opposite end of the dryer to 
facilitate the movement of the air. 

To illustrate this method we have chosen the apparatus as 
designed by the New York Blower Company and show by Fig. 
303 an elevation plan and by Fig. 304 a ground-floor plan of 
the same. There are so manj^ adaptations of this method that it 
is not convenient to illustrate or discuss all of them. 

When no waste heat is available, an ordinary type of pipe 
heater may be used with a blower fan and exhaust steam used in 
the heater. 

On many jobs a large proportion of the heat units from the 



344 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 




MISCELLANEOUS 



345 



coal consumed will be lost in the chimney flue, the amount of loss 
being dependent on the character of the boiler, as some boilers 





OLengine: 



COMBINATION 

WASTE HEAT 

STEAM AND FURNACE 

BRICK DRYER 




jl I]' DAMPER 




Fig. 304.— Ground-floor plan waste-heat utilizer. 

have more of a direct draught than others and consequently lose 
more of the heat units from the fuel consumed. It is true that 



346 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

a certain percentage of this loss is necessary^the chimney must 
be provided with sufficient heat to expand the air in the flue and 
to produce sufficient draught in the same. 

There are several methods of utilizing the heat units ordi- 
narily wasted in this manner. The hot smoke and gases may be 
passed through the flues of a cylindrical jacket or water heater, 
thus warming a sufficient quantity of water for domestic pur- 
poses. Again, they may pass through a supplementary casing 
under the ordinary type of hot-water storage tank, the smoke 
and gases entering this compartment at one end of the tank and 
leaving the compartment at the opposite end. It is a fact in 
heating practice that the hotter the return water, the more easily 
it is reheated by the boiler and circulated, if a hot-water appa- 
ratus, or generated into steam, if a steam-heating apparatus. 

The smoke and hot gases usually wasted may be utilized in 
heating the return water on a steam job by returning the con- 
densation through a heater having large flues through which the 
hot gases pass en route to the chimney, thus adding to the capac- 
ity of the boiler and accomplishing at the same time a material 
saving in fuel. 

While to a certain extent mechanical methods of drying and 
utilizing waste heat, or the reheating of return water, have no 
particular bearing on general steam-fitting practice, it is well to 
become familiar with the various methods employed in this direc- 
tion. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

Rules, Tables, and Other Information 

The author has selected the following information and tables 
from a large mass of data gathered from all reliable sources, as 
being of value to the steam fitter and heating contractor. 

While we cannot in every case guarantee the correctness of 
the data given, we believe all the information to be fully reliable, 
as it has been compiled from standard authorities and by men 
of practical experience. 

As we have previously remarked in the pages of this book, 
there is no rule but what must be applied with judgment, as 
existing conditions necessarily govern its application. Where this 
care is exercised the information given will prove of very great 
value and assistance to the practical steam fitter. 

Rules, Tables, and Useful Information 

V 
A U. S. gallon weighs 8.331 lbs. and contains 231 cubic inches 

or .13667 cubic feet. 

224 gallons of pure water weigh one ton ; 13.44 gallons weigh 
100 lbs. 



A cubic foot of water at a temperature of 32° Fahr. weighs 
62.418 lbs.; at 212° Fahr. it weighs 59.76 lbs. 



The expansion of water from 32° Fahr. (freezing) to 212° 
Fahr. (boiling) is one gallon in each twenty-three, or approxi- 
mately ^\ic. 

Water boils in vacuum at 98° Fahr, at sea level at 212° Fahr. 

347 



348 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

In figuring weight of water its hulk or quantity is considered. 
In determining pressure, the height of its column (vertical) is 
figured, approximately % lb. for each foot of height. 



A column of water one foot high equals a pressure of .433 lb. 
per square inch. A pressure of 1 lb. per square inch equals 2.31 
feet of water in height. 

Water transformed into steam expands 1,700 times its vol- 
ume. One cubic inch of water will produce approximately one 
cubic foot of steam. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical tank, multiply 
\/ the diameter of the tank in inches by itself, this by the height 

of tank in inches and the result by .34. 



A pound of anthracite coal contains about 14,500 heat units. 



A bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 lbs. A ton of 
anthracite contains about 40 cubic feet. 



A bushel of bituminous coal weighs about 76 lbs. A ton of 
bituminous contains about 49 cubic feet. 



The average consumption of fuel in a power boiler is 7% 
pounds of coal or 15 pounds of dry pine wood for each cubic 
foot of water evaporated. 

One square foot of grate (tubular boiler) will with natural 
draught consume 12 pounds of anthracite or 20 pounds of bitu- 
minous coal per hour. Double this amount can be burned with 
forced draught. 

Each nominal Horse Power in a tubular boiler requires 1 
cubic foot of water per hour. 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 349 

Condensing engines require from 20 to 25 gallons of water 
to condense the steam from one gallon of water. 



In calculating Horse Power of tubular or flue boilers, 15 
square feet of heating surface is equivalent to one nominal Horse 
Power. 

The specific gravity of steam at atmospheric pressure is .411 
that of air at 34° Fahr., and .0006 that of water at the same 
temperature. 

To determine necessary surface in square feet for aspirating 
coil in ventilating flue, divide the cubic feet of air to be moved 
per hour by .95 when steam, is used, or .60 when hot water. 



To find capacity of expansion tank required, multiply the 
square feet of radiation by .03 if less than 1,000 sq. ft. Mul- 
tiply by .025 between 1,000 and 2,000 sq. ft, and by .02 if 
more than 2,000 sq. ft. The result will be the size in gallons. 



To find the length of pipe required when making an offset 
with 45° fittings, a simple rule is as follows: For each inch of 
offset add Jf of an inch and the result will be the center-to- 
center measurement of the 45° angle. 



Twelve pounds of air are required to supply oxygen enough 
to burn one pound of coal. 

Air expands one-one hundred and seventy-ninth of its bulk. 



The velocity of hot air from a furnace is approximately 10 
feet per second at the register, with ordinarily good circulation. 



To find the circumference of a circle multiply the diameter by 
3.1414 or by 3f 



350 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

To find the diameter of a circle when the circumference is 
given, divide the circumference by 4.14159, 



To find the area of a circle multiply .7854 by the square of 
the diameter, that is, by the diameter multiplied by itself. 



Cement for Steam Boilers: Red or white lead in oil four parts, 
iron borings three parts, makes a soft cement. 



Cement for Leaky Boilers: A cement for leaky boilers (steam 
or hot water) consists of two parts powdered litharge, two parts 
of fine sand and one part of slacked lime. Mix with linseed oil 
and apply quickly. 

Rule for Calculating Speed and Size of Pulleys 

To Find the Size of Driving Pulley: Multiply the diameter 
of the driven by the number of revolutions it shall make and 
divide the answer by the revolutions of the driver per minute. 
The answer will be the diameter of the driver. 



To Find the Diameter of the Driven That Shall Make a Given 
Number of Revolutions : Multiply the diameter of the driver by 
its number of revolutions and divide the answer by the number of 
revolutions of the driven. The answer will be the diameter of the 
driven. 

To Find the Number of Revolutions of the Driven Pulley: 
Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions 
and divide by the diameter of the driven. The answer will be the 
number of revolutions of the driven. 



When it is not convenient to measure with the tape line the 
length required, apply the following rule: Add the diameter of 
the two pulleys together, divide the result by 2, and multiply the 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 351 

quotient by 314, then add this product to twice the distance be- 
tween the centers of the shafts, and you have the length required. 



The working adhesion of a belt to the pulley will be in pro- 
portion both to the number of square inches of belt contact with 
the surface of the pulley and also to the arc of the circumference 
of the pulley touched by the belt. This adhesion forms the basis 
of all right calculation in ascertaining the width of belt necessary 
to transmit a given horse power. 

TABLE XXIX 

Gauges and Their Equivalents 



No. 27, equal to i^-f inch. 


No. 12, equal to /^ inch. 


No. 21, equal to ;f2 inch. 


No. 10, equal to ^ inch. 


No. 18, equal to fi inch. 


No. 8, equal to ^\ inch. 


No. lis, equal to rg inch. 


No. 6, equal to -^ inch. 


No. 14, equal to ^4- inch. 


No. 5, equal to -3^ inch. 


No. 13, equal to -3% inch. 


No. 4, equal to \ inch. 



To Find Expansion of Pipe: Deduct the temperature of pipe 
at time of installation from the maximum temperature to which 
it will be heated, take tV of this difference and divide by 100. 
The result will equal the expansion in inches for each 100 lineal 
feet of pipe. 

To Determine the Capacity of a Cylinder or Round Tank in 
Gallons: Square the diameter and multiply by the length of the 
cylinder and this product by .0034. 

Another rule is to multiply the diameter of the cylinder in 
inches by itself, this product by the length in inches, and the 
result by .34. 

To Clean Brass: Mix in a stone jar one part of nitric acid, 
and one half part of sulphuric acid. Dip the brass into this mix- 
ture, wash in water, and dry in sawdust. If greasy, first clean 
the brass by dipping in a strong mixture of potash, soda, and 
water, and wash thoroughly in water. 



352 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

To Remove Stains from Marble: Mix two parts of soda, one 
of ground pumice, and one of finely-powdered chalk. Sift through 
a fine sieve and with water mix into a paste. Rub this composi- 
tion on the marble and wash with soap and water. 



To Remove Grease Stains from Marble: Mix one and one 
half parts of soft soap, three parts of fuller's earth, and one and 
one half parts of potash with boiling water. Cover grease spots 
with this mixture and allow it to stand twenty-four hours, after 
which wash with hot water. 



To Remove Rust from Steel: Steel which has been rusted 
can be cleaned by brushing with a paste compound of 1/^ oz. 
cyanide of potassium, % oz. castile soap, 1 oz. whiting, and water 
sufficient to form a paste. The steel should be washed with a 
solution of % oz. cyanide of potassium in 2 oz. of water. 



To Prevent Machinery from Rusting: Take 1 oz. of camphor 
and dissolve in one pound of melted lard. Remove the scum and 
mix enough lamp-black to give an iron color. Clean the ma- 
chinery and smear it with the mixture. Under ordinary circum- 
stances it will not rust for months. 



To Harden Cast Iron: Cast iron can be hardened as easily 
as steel, and to such a degree of hardness that a file will not touch 
it. Take one half pint of vitriol, one peck of salt, one half pound 
of saltpetre, two pounds of alum, one quarter pound prussic 
potash, one quarter pound of cyanide of potash and dissolve in 
ten gallons of rain water. Stir until thoroughly dissolved. Heat 
the iron to a cherry red and dip it into the solution. If the iron 
needs to be very hard, reheat it and dip a second or a third time. 



To Inscribe Metal: Cover the part with melted beeswax; when 
cold, write what you desire plainly in the wax, taking care that 
the scriber cleans the wax from the metal. Then with a mixture 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 353 

of Yo oz. nitric acid and 1 oz. of muriatic acid carefully fill each 
letter of the inscription. For this service a feather will be found 
to be very adaptable. Let the acid remain for from one to ten 
minutes and then throw on water to arrest the action of the acid. 
Remove the wax by heating and the inscription will be completed. 

TABLE XXX 

Melting Points of Metals 



Tin 446° 

Bismuth 507° 

Lead 617° 

Zinc 773° 

Antimony 810° 

Aluminum 1,400° 

Bronze. . . , 1,692° 

Silver 1,873° 



Brass 1,900° 

Copper 1,996° 

Gold 2,066° 

Glass 2,377° 

Steel 4,000° 

Cast iron 2,250° 

Wrought iron 2,912° 

Platinum 3,080° 



TABLE XXXI 

Boiling Points of Fluids 



Water (Complete Vacuum) 98° 

Water (At Sea Level) 212° 

Alcohol 173° 

Sulphuric Acid . . . " 240° 

Refined Petroleum 316° 

Turpentine 315° 

Sulphur 570° 



Linseed Oil 597° 

Mercury (Atmospheric Pressure) . . 676° 

Ammonia 140° 

Coal Tar 325° 

Olive Oil 413° 

Sea Water (Average) £13° 



354 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE XXXII 

Tables of Weights and Measures 



4 gills make 

2 pints ". 1 



Liquid Measure 

1 pint 14 quarts make 1 gallon 

quart | 31^ gallons " 1 ban-el 



Measures of Length 



4 inches make 1 hand 

92 " " 1 link 

18 " " 1 cubit 

12 " " 1 foot 

6 feet " 1 fathom 

3 " " 1 yard 



53^ yards make 1 rod or pole 

40 poles " 1 furlong 

8 furlongs " 1 mile 

Q^Yq miles " 1 degree 

60 geographical miles " 1 degree 
1,760 yards or 5,280 feet " 1 mile 



Measures of Surface 

144 square inches make 

9 square feet " 

303^ square yards ^ " 

40 square rods , . " 

4 square roods " 

10 square chains . " 

640 square acres " 

Cubic Measures 

1,728 cubic inches make 

2,150 . 42 cubic inches 

46,656 cubic inches 

7,276 . 5 cubic inches 

27 cubic feet ; . . . 

128 cubic feet 

4 . 21 cubic feet 



1 square foot 
1 square yard 
1 square rod 
1 square rood 
1 square acre 
1 square acre 
1 square mile 



1 cubic foot 
1 bushel 
1 cubic yard 
1 barrel 
1 cubic yard 
1 cord 
1 barrel 



Weight of Metals 

Lead 1 foot square, 1 inch thick, weighs 59 . 06 pounds 

Copper 1 " " 1 " " " 45 .3 " 

Cast Iron 1 " "1 " " " 37.54 

Wrought Iron 1 " "1 " " " 40.5 

Cast Steel 1 " " 1 " " " 40.83 

Table of Weights (avoirdupois) 

16 drams make 1 ounce (oz.) 

16 ounces " 1 pound (lb.) 

25 pounds " 1 quarter (qr.) 

4 quarters " 1 hundred (cwt.) 

20 cwt. or 2,000 lbs " 1 net ton 

The gross ton is 2,240 pounds. 

Weights, etc. 

One Cubic Inch of Cast Iron weighs , . 26 pound 

One Cubic Inch of Wrought Iron weighs . 28 pound 

One Cubic Inch of Water weighs . 36 pound 

One United States Gallon weighs 8 . 33 pounds 

One Imperial Gallon weighs 10 .00 pounds 

One United Staites Gallon equals 231 .00 cubic inches 

One Imperial Gallon equals 277 . 274 cubic inches 

One Cubic Foot of Water equals 7.48 U. S. gallons 

One Pound of Steam equals 27 . 222 cubic feet 

One Pound of Air equals 13 . 817 cubic feet 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 355 



TABLE XXXITI 



Metric System 

Prefixes of Multiples and Sub-Multiples of Meter, Liter, and Gram 

Deka =10 Deci =0.1 

Hecto = 100 Centi=0.01 

Kilo =1000 Milli =0.001 

10 millimeters =1 centimeter. 10 meters =1 dekameter. 

10 centimeters =1 decimeter. 10 dekameters =1 hectometer. 

10 decimeters =1 meter. 10 hectometers = 1 kilometer. 



Metric Equivalents 
Linear Measure 



1 centimeter = . 3937 in. 

1 decimeter = 3 . 937 in. = . 328 ft. 

1 meter =39.27 in. =1.0936 yards. 

1 dekameter = 1 . 9884 rods. 

1 kilometer =0.62137 mile. 



1 in. =2.54 centimeters or 0.254 meter. 
1 ft. = 3 . 048 decimeters or . 3048 meter. 
1 yard = . 9144 meter. 
1 rod =0.5029 dekameter. 
1 mile =1.6093 kilometers. 



1 sq. centimeter 

1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft. 

1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd. 

1 are = 3.954 sq. rods. 

1 hektar = 2.47 acres. 

1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. mile. 



Surface or Square Measure 

0.1550 sq. in. 1 sq. inch = 6.452 sq. centimeters. 

1 sq. foot = 9.2903 sq. decimeters. 
1 sq. yard = 0,8361 sq. meter. 
1 sq. rod = 0.2529 are. 
1 sq. acre = 0.4047 hektar. 
1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. kilometers. 



Measure of Volume and Capacity 



1 cu 
1 cu 
1 
1 

1 liter 



centimeter 
decimeter = 



= 0.061 cu. m. 
0.0353 cu. ft. 
cu. meter [ ^ j 1.308 cu. yards, 
ster ) ( . 2759 cord. 

0.908 quart dry. 
1 .0567 quarts hq. 

1 dekaliter =i 2-641^ g'^"«n^- 
( .135 peck. 

1 hectoliter =2.8375 bushels. 



1 gram = . 0527 ounce. 

1 kilogram =2.2046 lbs. 

1 metric ton = 1.1023 English tons. 



1 cu. inch =16.39 cu. centimeters. 

1 cu. foot =28.317 cu. decimeters. 

1 cu. yard =0.7646 cu. meter. 

1 cord =3.624 sters. 

1 quart dry = 1 . 101 liters. 

1 quart liq. =0.9463 liter. 

1 gallon =0.3785 dekaliter. 

1 peck =0.881 dekaliter. 

1 bu.shel =0.3524 hectoliter. 



Weights 



1 ounce =28.35 grams. 

1 lb. =0.4536 kilogram. 

1 EngHsh ton =0.9072 metric ton. 



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RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 357 

TABLE XXXV 

COMPAEISON OF ThERMOMETRIC ScALES 



Fahr- 
enheit. 


Centi- J 
grade. 


leaumur. 


Fahr- 
enheit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


- 40 


- 40.00 


- 32.00 


-f 125 


-f 51.67 


+ 41.33 


" 35 


" 37.22 


' 29.78 


"130 


" 54.44 


" 43.56 


" 30 


" 34.44 


' 27.56 


"135 


" 57.22 


" 45.78 


" 25 


" 31.67 


' 25.33 


"140 


" 60.00 


" 48.00 


" 20 


" 28.89 


' 23.11 


"145 


" 62.78 


" 50.22 


" 15 


" 26.11 


' 20.89 


"150 


" 65.55 


" 52.44 


" 10 


" 23.33 


' 18.67 


"155 


" 68.33 


" 54.67 


" 5 


" 20.55 


' 16.44 


"160 


" 71.11 


" 56.89 





" 17.78 


' 14.22 


"165 


" 73.89 


" 59.11 


+ 5 


" 15.00 


' 12.00 


"170 


" 76.67 


" 61.33 


" 10 


" 12.22 


' 9.78 


" 175 


" 79.44 


" 63.56 


" 15 


" 9.44 


' 7.56 


"180 


" 82.22 


" 65.78 


" 20 


" 6.67 


' 5.33 


"185 


" 85.00 


" 68.00 


" 25 


" 3.89 


' 3.11 


"190 


" 87.78 


" 70.22 


" 30 


" 1.11 


' 0.89 


"195 


" 90.55 


" 72.44 


" 32 


0.0 


0.00 


"200 


" 93.33 


" 74.67 


" 35 


+1.67 ^ 


- 1.33 


"205 


" 96.11 


" 76.89 


" 40 


" 4.44 


' 3.56 


"210 


" 98.89 


" 79.11 


" 45 


" 7.22 


' 5.78 


"212 


"100.00 


" 80.00 


" 50 


" 10.00 


' 8.00 


"250 


"121.10 


" 96.90 


" 55 


" 12.78 


' 10.22 


"300 


"148.89 


"119.20 


" 60 


" 15.55 


' 12.44 


"302 


"150.00 


"120.00 


" 65 


" 18.33 


' 14.67 


"350 


"176.66 


"141.40 


" 70 


" 21.11 


' 16.89 


"392 


"200.00 


"160.00 


" 15 


" 23.89 


' 19.11 


"464 


"240.00 


"192.00 


" 80 


" 26.67 


' 21.33 


"500 


"260.00 


"208.00 


" 85 


" 29.44 


' 23.56 


"572 


"300.00 


"240.00 


" 90 


" 32.22 


' 25.78 


"600 


"315.06 


"252.40 


" 95 


" 35.00 


' 28.00 


"662 


"350.00 


"280.00 


" 100 


" 37.78 


' 30.22 


"700 


"371.11 


"296.90 


"105 


" 40.55 


' 32.44 


"752 


"400.00 


"320.00 


"110 


" 43.33 


' 34.67 


"800 


"426.66 


"341.30 


" 115 


" 46.11 


' 36.89 


"932 


"500.00 


"400.00 


''120 


" 48.89 


' 39.11 









358 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE XXXVI 

Table of the Areas of Circles and of the Sides of Squares of the Same Area 



Diam- 
eter of 
Circle 

in 
inches. 


Area of 

Circle in 

square 

inches. 


Sides of 
Sq. of 
same 
area in 
square 
inches. 


Diam- 
eter of 
Circle 

in 
inches. 


Area of 

Circle in 

square 

inches. 


Sides of 
Sq. of 
same 
area in 
square 
inches. 


Diam- 
eter of 
Circle 

in 
inches. 


Area of 

Circle in 

square 

inches. 


Sides of 
Sq. of 
same 
area in 
square 
inches. 


1 


.785 


.89 


21 


346.36 


18.61 


41 


1,320.26 


36.34 


^ 


1.767 


1.33 


y 


363.05 


19.05 


y2 


1,352.66 


36.78 


2 


3.142 


1.77 


22 


380 . 13 


19.50 


42 


1,385.45 


37.22 


^ 


4.909 


2.22 


y 


397.61 


19.94 


y 


1,418.63 


37.66 


3 


7.069 


2.66 


23 


415.48 


20.38 


43 


1,452.20 


38.11 


3^ 


9.621 


3.10 


K 


433.74 


20.83 


y 


1,486 . 17 


38.55 


4 


12.566 


3.54 


24 


452.39 


21.27 


44 


1,520.53 


38.99 


^ 


15.904 


3.99 


y 


471.44 


21.71 


y 


1,555.29 


39.44 


5 


19.635 


4.43 


25 


490.88 


22.16 


45 


1,590.43 


39.88 


Yi 


23.758 


4.87 


y 


510.71 


22.60 


y 


1,625.97 


40.32 


6 


28.274 


5.32 


26 


530.93 


23.04 


46 


1,661. 9i 


40.77 


¥1 


33.183 


5.76 


y 


.551.55 


23.49 


y 


1,698.23 


41.21 


7 


38.485 


6.20 


27 


572.56 


23.93 


47 


1,734.95 


41.65 


^ 


44 . 179 


6.65 


Yi 


593.96 


24.37 


y 


1,772.06 


42.10 


8 


50.266 


7.09 


28 


615.75 


24.81 


48 


1,809.56 


42.58 


3^ 


56.745 


7.53 


3^ 


637.94 


25.26 


y 


1,847.46 


42.98 


9 


63.617 


7.98 


29 


660.52 


25.70 


49 


1,885.75 


43.43 


y^ 


70.882 


8.42 


^ 


683.49 


26.14 


1/ 

72 


1,924.43 


43.87 


10 


78.540 


8.86 


30 


706.86 


26.59 


50 


1,963.50 


44.31 


y 


86.590 


9.30 


y 


730.62 


27.03 


y 


2,002.97 


44.75 


11 


95.03 


9.75 


31 


754.77 


27.47 


51 


2,042.83 


45.20 


^ 


103.87 


10.19 


y 


779.31 


27.92 


3^ 


2,083.08 


45.64 


12 


113.10 


10.63 


32 


804.25 


28.36 


52 


2,123.72 


46.08 


3^ 


122.72 


11.08 


K 


829.58 


28.80 


/^ 


2,164.76 


46.53 


13 


132.73 


11.52 


33 


855.30 


29.25 


53 


2,206.19 


46.97 


3^ 


143.14 


11.96 


y 


881.41 


29.69 


/^ 


2,248.01 


47.41 


14 


153.94 


12.41 


34 


907.92 


30.13 


54 


2,290.23 


47.86 


3^ 


165.13 


12.85 


^ 


934.82 


30.57 


3^ 


2,332.83 


48.30 


15 


176.72 


13.29 


35 


962.11 


31.02 


55 


2,375.83 


48.74 


^ 


188.69 


13.74 


3^ 


989.80 


31.46 


y 


2,419.23 


49.19 


16 


201.06 


14.18 


36 


1,017.88 


31.90 


56 


2,463.01 


49.63 


^ 


213.83 


14.62 


y 


1,046.35 


32.35 


¥2 


2,507 . 19 


50.07 


17 


226.98 


15.07 


37 


1,075.21 


32.79 


57 


2,551.76 


50.51 


3^ 


240.53 


15.51 


y 


1,104.47 


33.23 


3^2 


2,596.73 


50.96 


18 


254.47 


15.95 


38 


1,134.12 


33.68 


58 


2,642.09 


51.40 


3^ 


268.80 


16.40 


y^ 


1,164.16 


34.12 


y 


2,687.84 


51.84 


19 


283.53 


16.84 


39 


1,194.59 


34.56 


59 


2,733.98 


52.29 


3^ 


298.65 


17.28 


3^ 


1,225.42 


35.01 


y 


2,780.51 


52.73 


20 


314.16 


17.72 


40 


1,256.64 


35.45 


60 


2,827.74 


53.17 


^ 


330.06 


18.17 


3^ 


1,288.25 


35.89 


y 


2,874.76 


53.62 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 859 

TABLE XXXVII 

Temperature of Steam at Vartoits Pressures above that of the 
Atmosphere (14.7 lbs.) 



Pounds 


Degrees 


Pounds 


Degrees 


Pounds 


Degrees 


Pressure. 


Fahrenheit. 


Pressure. 


Fahrenheit. 


Pressure. 


Fahrenheit. 





212 


18 


254.5 


100 


337.5 


1 


215.5 


19 


256 


105 


341 


2 


219 


20 


257.5 


115 


347 


3 


222 


25 


265 


125 


353 


4 


• 225 


30 


272.5 


135 


358 


5 


227.5 


35 


279.5 


145 


363 


6 


230 


40 


285.5 


155 


368 


7 


232.5 


45 


291 


165 


373 


8 


235 


50 


297 


175 


377 


9 


237.5 


55 


302 


185 


381 


10 


240 


60 


307 


235 


401 


11 


242 


65 


311 


285 


417 


12 


244 


70 


315 


335 


430 


13 


246 


75 


320 


385 


445 


14 


248 


80 


323 


435 


456 


15 


250 


85 


327 


485 


467 


16 


252 


90 


331 


585 


487 


17 


253.5 


95 


334 


685 


504 



TABLE XXXVIII 

Properties of Saturated Steam 









Total Heat above 












Abso- 


Tem- 


32 degrees. 






Volume 


Weight 


Pres- 


lute 


perature 






Latent 


Relative 
Volume 
39° =1. 


C. F. 


1 cubic 

foot 
Steam. 

Lbs. 






sure. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Heat Units 
in the 


Heat Units 
in the 


Heat. 


in 1 lb. 
Steam. 








Water. 


Steam. 










0.0 


14.7 


212.0 


180.9 


1,146.6 


965.7 


1,646.0 


26.36 


.03794 


1.3 


16.0 


216.3 


185.3 


1,147.9 


962.7 


1,519.0 


24.33 


.04110 


2.3 


17.0 


219.4 


188.4 


1,148.9 


960.5 


1,434.0 


22.98 


.04352 


3.3 


18.0 


222.4 


191.4 


1,149.8 


958.3 


1,359.0 


21.78 


.04592 


4.3 


19.0 


225.2 


194.3 


1,150.6 


956.3 


1,292.0 


20.70 


.04831 


5.3 


20.0 


227.9 


197.0 


1,151.5 


954.4 


1,231.0 


19.72 


.05070 


10.3 


25.0 


240.0 


209.3 


1,155.1 


945.8 


998.4 


15.99 


.06253 


15.3 


30.0 


250.2 


219.7 


1,158.3 


938.9 


841.3 


13.48 


.07420 


20.3 


35.0 


259.2 


228.8 


1,161.0 


932.2 


727.9 


11.66 


.08576 


25.3 


40.0 


267.1 


236.9 


1,163.4 


926.5 


642.0 


10.28 


.09721 


30.3 


45.0 


274.3 


244.3 


1,165.6 


921.3 


574.7. 


9.21 


.1086 


40.3 


55.0 


286.9 


257.2 


1,169.4 


912.3 


475.9 


7.63 


.1311 


50.3 


65.0 


297.8 


268.3 


1,172.8 


904.5 


406.6 


6.53 


.1533 


60.3 


75.0 


307.4 


278.2 


1,175.7 


897.5 


355.5 


5.71 


.1753 


70.3 


85.0 


316.0 


287.0 


1,178.3 


891.3 


315.9 


5.07 


.1971 


80.3 


95.0 


323.9 


295.1 


1,180.7 


885.6 


284.5 


4.57 


.2188 


90.3 


105.0 


331.1 


302.6 


1,182.9 


880.3 


258.9 


4.16 


.2403 


100.3 


115.0 


337.8 


309.5 


1,185.0 


875.5 


237.6 


3.82 


.2617 


125.3 


140.0 


352.8 


325.0 


1,189.5 


864.6 


197.3 


3.18 


.3147 


150.3 


165.0 


365.7 


338.4 


1,193.5 


855.1 


169.0 


2.72 


.3671 


200.3 


215.0 


387.7 


361.3 


1,200.2 


838.9 


131.5 


2.12 


.4707 



360 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



TABLE XXXIX 

Materials for Brickwork of Tubular Boilers 



Boilers. 


Common 
Brick. 


Fire Brick. 


Sand, 
Bushels. 


Cement, 
Barrels. 


Fire Clay, 
Pounds. 


Lime, 
Barrels. 


Single Setting 














SOin.x 8 ft. 


5,200 


320 


42 


5 


192 


2 


30 in. X 10 ft. 


5,800 


320 


46 


5^ 


192 


21^ 


36in.x 8 ft. 


6,200 


480 


50 


6 


288 


21^ 


36in.x 9 ft. 


6,600 


480 


53 


6K 


288 


2M 


36 in. X 10 ft. 


7,000 


480 


56 


7 " 


288 


3 


36 in. X 12 ft. 


7,800 


480 


62 


8 


288 


3}i 


42 in. X 10 ft. 


10,000 


720 


80 


10 


432 


4 


42 in. X 12 ft. 


10,800 


720 


86 


11 


432 


4M 


42 in. X 14 ft. 


11,600 


720 


92 


UH 


432 


43^ 


42 in. X 16 ft. 


12,400 


720 


99 


123^ 


432 


5 


48 in. X 10 ft. 


12,500 


980 


100 


123^ 


590 


5H 


48 in. X 12 ft. 


13,200 


980 


108 


131^ 


590 


dVo 


48 in. X 14 ft. 


14,200 


980 


116 


141^ 


590 


5M 


48 in. X 16 ft. 


15,200 


980 


124 


153^ 


590 


6 


54 in. X 12 ft. 


13,800 


1,150 


108 


isH 


690 


53^ 


54 in. X 14 ft. 


14,900 


1,150 


117 


15 


690 


6 


54 in. X 16 ft. 


16,000 


1,150 


126 


16 


690 


6H 


60 in. xlOft. 


13,500 


1,280 


108 


13^ 


768 


53^ 


60 in. X 12 ft. 


14,800 


1,280 


118 


143^ 


768 


6 


60 in. x 14 ft. 


16,100 


1,280 


128 


16 


768 


6>^ 


60 in. X 16 ft. 


17,400 


1,280 


140 


17>^ 


768 


7 


60 in. X 18 ft. 


18,700 


1,280 


148 


18M 


768 


m 


66 in. X 16 ft. 


19,700 


1,400 


157 


19M 


840 


8 


66 in. X 18 ft. 


21,000 


1,400 


168 


21 


840 


m 


72 in. X 16 ft. 


20,800 


1,550 


166 


20^ 


930 


8^ 


n in. X 18 ft. 


22,000 


1,550 


175 


22 


930 


9 


Tivo Boilers in 














a Battery 














30in.x 8 ft. 


8,900 


640 


70 


9 


384 


33^ 


30 in. X 10 ft. 


9,600 


640 


76 


93^ 


384 


4 


36in.x 8 ft. 


10,500 


960 


84 


lOM 


576 


4M 


36in.x 9 ft. 


11,100 


960 


88 


11 


576 


43^ 


36 in. X 10 ft. 


11,800 


960 


95 


12 


576 


4M 


36 in. X 12 ft. 


13,000 


960 


104 


13 


576 


5M 


42 in. X 10 ft. 


17,500 


1,440 


140 


173^ 


864 


7 


42 in. X 12 ft. 


18,600 


1,440 


148 


183^ 


864 


73^ 


42 in. X 14 ft. 


19,900 


1,440 


159 


20 


864 


8 


42 in. X 16 ft. 


21,200 


1,440 


168 


21 


864 


8^ 


48 in. X 10 ft. 


21,400 


1,960 


170 


213^ 


1,180 


8M 


48 in. X 12 ft. 


22,300 


1,960 


178 


223^ 


1,180 


9 


48 in. X 14 ft. 


23,900 


1,960 


190 


24 


1,180 


934 


48 in. X 16 ft. 


25,100 


1,960 


200 


25 


1,180 


10 


54 in. X 12 ft. 


23,300 


2,300 


186 


23K 


1,380 


9K 


54 in. X 14 ft. 


24,800 


2,300 


198 


25 


1,380 


10 


54 in. X 16 ft. 


26,300 


2,300 


210 


261;^ 


1,380 


10^ 


60 in. X 10 ft. 


22,600 


2,560 


180 


221^ 


1,536 


9 


60 in. X 12 ft. 


24,800 


2,560 


198 


25 


1,536 


10 


60 in. X 14 ft. 


26,800 


2,560 


214 


27 


1,536 


lOM 


60 in. X 16 ft. 


28,900 


2,560 


230 


29 


1,536 


113^ 


60 in. X 18 ft. 


31,000 


2,560 


248 


31 


1,536 


121^ 


66 in. X 16 ft. 


33,100 


2,800 


264 


33 


1,680 


13K 


66 in. X 18 ft. 


36,500 


2,800 


276 


35 


1,680 


14 


72 in. X 16 ft. 


34,000 


3,100 


272 


34 


1,860 


13^ 


72 in. X 18 ft. 


38,000 


3,100 


282 


36 


1,860 


15 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 361 



TABLE XL 

Standard Pipe 
Extra Strong 







Actual 


Nominal 




Nominal 


Size, 


Price 


Outside 


Inside 


Thickness, 


Weight, 


Inches. 


per Foot. 


Diameter, 


Diameter, 


Inches. 


per Foot, 






Inches. 


Inches. 




Pounds. 


Vs 


.11 


.405 


.205 


.100 


.29 


M 


.11 


.540 


.294 


.123 


.54 


Vs 


.11 


.675 


.421 


.127 


.74 


^ 


.12 


.840 


.542 


.149 


1.09 


H 


.15 


1.05 


.736 


.157 


1.39 


1 


.22 


1.315 


.951 


.182 


2.17 


IK 


.30 


1.66 


1.272 


.194 


3.00 


13^ 


.36 


1.900 


1.494 


.203 


3.63 


2 


.50 


2.375 


1.933 


.221 


5.02 


23^ 


.81 


2.875 


2.315 


.280 


7.67 


3 


1.05 


3.500 


2.892 


.304 


10.25 


3>i 


1.33 


4.000 


3.358 


.321 


12.47 


4 


1.50 


4.500 


3.818 


.341 


14.97 


4)^ 


1.95 


5.000 


4.280 


.360 


18.22 


5 


2.16 


5.563 


4.813 


.375 


20.54 


6 


2.90 


6.625 


5.750 


.437 


28.58 


7 


3.80 


7.625 


6.625 


.500 


37.67 


8 


4.30 


8.625 


7.625 


.500 


43.00 


Double Extra Strong 






Actual 


Nominal 




Nominal 


Size, 


Price 


Outside 


Inside 


Thickness, 


Weight 


Inches. 


per Foot. 


Diameter, 


Diameter, 


Inches. 


per Foot, 






Inches. 


Inches. 




Pounds. 


3^ 


.25 


.84 


.244 


.298 


1.70 


M 


.30 


1.05 


.422 


.314 


2.44 


1 


.37 


1.315 


.587 


.364 


3.65 


iM 


.52 


1.66 


.885 


.388 


5.20 


13^ 


.65 


1.90 


1.088 


.406 


6.40 


2 


.95 


2.375 


1.491 


.442 


9.02 


23^ 


1.37 


2.875 


1.755 


.560 


13.68 


3 


1.92 


3.50 


2.284 


.608 


18.56 


33^ 


2.45 


4.00 


2.716 


.642 


22.75 


4 


2.85 


4.50 


3.136 


.682 


27.48 


4^ 


3.30 


5.00 


3.564 


.718 


32.53 


5 


3.80 


5.563 


4.063 


.750 


38.12 


6 


5.30 


6.625 


4.875 


.875 


53.11 


7 


6.25 


7.625 


5.875 


.875 


62.38 


8 


7.20 


8.625 


6.875 


.875 


71.62 













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364 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE XLIII 

Relation Between Temperature of Feed Water and Evaporative 
Capacity of Boiler 



Temperature of 
Feed Water, 
Degrees Fahr. 


Steam Pressure, 
Pounds. 


Feed Water per 

Horse Power per 

Hour, Pounds. 


Gallons per Minute per 100 Horse 
Power. 


100 
70 
100 
150 
180 
200 
212 


70 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


*30.00 
29.04 
29.82 
31.22 
32 . 14 
32.77 
33.17 


6.02+10 per cent. = 6.62 
5.79+10 " " = 6.36 
5.98+10 " " = 6.57 
6.34+10 " " = 6.97 
6.61+10 " " = 7.27 
6.65+10 " " = 7.31 
6.94+10 " " = 7.63 



* This is the standard adopted by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and is. 
the generally accepted commercial standard by boiler makers and users. 

The evaporative capacity of a boiler depends, among other 
things, upon the steam pressure and temperature of the feed 
water. The pressure makes so Httle difference that it has been 
estimated for 100 pounds as practically correct for all pressures. 
The difference between making steam at atmospheric pressure and 
100 pounds pressure is only 3% per cent. Changing the tem- 
perature of the feed water from 100 degrees to 212 degrees will 
vary the evaporative capacity of a boiler over 11 per cent. 



TABLE XLIV 

Quantity of Feed Water Required to Supply Boiler 



Horse Power 
of Boiler. 


Quantity of Feed Water Required. 


Temperature of 

Feed Water. 
Degrees Fahr. 


Gallons per Minute. 


Pounds per Hour. 


50 

100 

200 

250 

300 

400 

500 

600 

800 

1,000 

1,200 

1,500 

1,800 

2,200 

3,000 

3,500 

4,500 

6,000 

7,000 


3.60 to 4.20 

6.57 to 7.63 

13.14 to 15.26 

16.43 to 19.07 

19.71 to 22.89 

26.28 to 30.52 

32.85 to 38.15 

39.42 to 45.78 

52.26 to 61.04 

65.70 to 76.30 

78.84 to 91.56 

98.55 to 114.45 

118.26 to 137.34 

144.50 to 167.80 

197.10 to 228.90 

229.95 to 267.05 

295.65 to 343.35 

394.20 to 457.80 

459.90 to 534.10 


1,599 to 2,029 

3,285 to 3,815 

6,590 to 7,630 

8, 215 to 9,535 

9,855 to 11,445 

13,140 to 15,260 

16,425 to 19,075 

19,710 to 22,890 

26,280 to 30,520 

32,350 to 38,150 

39,420 to 45,780 

49,275 to 57,225 

59,130 to 68,670 

71,290 to 83,930 

98,500 to 114,500 

114,975 to 133,525 

147,825 to 171,675 

197,100 to 228,900 

229,950 to 267,050 


100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 
100 to 212 



KULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 365 



TABLE XLV 

Vacuum, Pressure and Temperature, Etc. 



Vacuum 

measured in 

inches of 

Mercury. 


Absolute 
pressure in 
inches of 
Mercury. 


Absolute 
pressure in 

lbs. per 
square inch. 


Temperature 

of boiling 
point. Fahr. 


Latent heat of 
evaporation 
in B. T. U. 


Sensible heat of 
Evaporation. 


293-^ 


¥2 


.245 


59.1 


1072.8 


27.1 


29 


1 


.490 


79.3 


1058.8 


47.3 


^m 


13^ 


.735 


92.0 


1049.9 


60.1 


28 


2 


.980 


101.4 


1044.4 


69.5 


27 


3 


1.470 


115.3 


1033.7 


83.4 


26 


4 


1.960 


125.6 


1026.5 


93.8 


25 


5 


2.450 


134.0 


1020.6 


102.2 


24 


6 


2.940 


141.0 


1015.7 


109.3 


23 


7 


3.430 


147.0 


1011.5 


115.3 


22 


8 


3.920 


152.3 


1007.8 


120.5 


21 


9 


4.410 


157.0 


1004.5 


125.4 


20 


10 


4.900 


161.5 


1001.3 


129.9 


19 


11 


5.390 


■ 165.6 


998.4 


134.1 


18 


12 


5.880 


169.2 


995.9 


137.7 


17 


13 


6.370 


172.8 


993.4 


140.3 


16 


14 


6.860 


176.0 


991.1 


144.5 


15 


15 


7.350 


179.1 


988.8 


147.7 


14 


16 


7.840 


182.0 


986.9 


150.6 


12 


17 


8.820 


187.4 


983.1 


156.0 


10 


20 


9.800 


192.3 


979.6 


161.0 


5 


25 


12.25 


203.0 


972.1 


171.8 





30 


14.70 


212.0 


965.7 


180.9 



S66 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE XLVI 

Pump Diameters and Capacities in Gallons 





Area 
Inches. 


Displacement 




Area 
Inches. 


Displacement 


Diameter. 


in Gals, per 
Ft. of Travel. 


Diameter. 


in Gals, per 
Ft. of Travel. 


Vs 


.0129 


.0006 


8 


50.26 


2.548 


H 


.0490 


.0025 


81^ 


53.45 


2.7739 


Vs 


.1104 


.0056 1 


83^ 


56.74 


2.944 


y^ 


.1963 


.0101 


m 


60.13 


3.0105 


H 


.3068 


.0135 


9 


63.61 


3.2505 


% 


.4417 


.0228 


9M 


67.20 


3.407 


Vs 


.6018 


.0311 


■93^ 


70.88 


3.678 


1 


.7854 


.0407 


9^ 


74.66 


3.874 


Ws 


.9940 


.0505 


10 


78.54 


3.997 


IM 


1.227 


.0624 


lOM 


82.51 


4.281 


Ws 


1.484 


.0629 


101/^ 


86.59 


4.493 


1^ 


1.767 


.0896 


lo'M 


90.76 


4.708 


1^ 


2.073 


.1073 


11 


95.03 


4.931 


1^ 


2.405 


. 1237 


11^ 


99.40 


5.158 


Ws 


2.761 . 


.1432 


113^ 


103.8 


5.386 


2 


3.141 


.1639 


■iiM 


108.4 


5.634 


^Vs 


3.546 


.1839 


12 


113.0 


5.852 


21^ 


3.970 


.2063 


12M 


117.8 


6.015 


m 


4.430 


.2296 


121^ 


122.7 


6.366 


23^ 


4.908 


.2545 


12M 


127.6 


6.620 


2^ 


5.411 


.2807 


13 


132.7 


6.884 


2M 


5.939 


.2948 


13^ 


137.8 


7.149 


^Vs 


6.491 


.3411 


133^ 


143.1 


7.254 


3 


7.068 


.3667 


13M 


148.4 


7.688 


33^ 


7.669 


.3979 


14 


153.9 


7.966 


3M 


8.295 


.4304 


141^ 


159.4 


8.270 


3^ 


8.946 


.4641 


143^ 


165.1 


8.565 


33^ 


9.621 


.4992 


' 143^ 


170.8 


8.874 


3^ 


10.32 


.5355 


15 


176.7 


9.167 


3^ 


11.04 


.5728 


153^ 


182.6 


9.474 


3>^ 


11.79 


.5953 


153^ 


188.6 


9.785 


4 


12.56 


.6522 


15% 


194.8 


10.098 


41^ 


14.18 


.7356 


16 


201.0 


10.435 


4^ 


15.90 


.8250 


163€ 


207.3 


10.720 


4^ 


17.72 


.9194 


163^ 


213.8 


11.079 


5 


19.63 


.9954 


16M 


220.3 


11.43 


^H 


21.54 


1.123 


17 


226.9 


11.775 


5^ 


23.75 


1.2035 


171^ 


233 .7 


12.125 


5^ 


25.96 


1.346 


173^ 


240.5 


12.172 


6 


28.27 


1.433 


11% 


247.4 


12.838 


6M 


30.67 


1.5915 


18 


254.4 


13.208 


63^ 


33.18 


1.6817 


181^ 


261.5 


13.57 


6M 


35.78 


1.8137 


183^^ 


268.8 


13 . 975 


7 


38.48 


1.9965 


1834 


276.1 


14.375 


73^ 


•41.28 


2.1416 


19 


283.5 


14.711 


73^ 


44.17 


2.2958 


191^ 


291.0 


15.10 


7M 


47.17 


2.4465 


191^ 


298.6 


15.55 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 367 



TABLE XLVII 

Table of Decimal Equivalents of an Inch 
By 64ths; from l-64th to 1 Inch 



Fraction. 


Decimal. 


1 

Fraction. 


Decimal. 


-h 


.015625 


n 


.515625 


^h 


.031250 


H 


.531250 


^ 


.046875 


If 


.546875 


-A- 


.062500 


-^ 


.562500 


-h 


.078125 


n 


.578125 


3% 


.093750 


if 


.593750 


-64 


. 109375 


If 


.609375 


i 


. 125000 


f 


.625000 


-^ 


. 140625 


41 

b4 


.640625 


A 


. 156250 


21 
32 


.656250 


U 


.171875 


n 


.671875 


le 


. 187500 


H 


.687500 


if 


.203125 


n 


.703125 


-/2- 


.218750 


ft 


.718750 


M 


.234375 


u 


.734375 


i 


.250000 


f 


.750000 


H 


.265625 


If 


.765625 


^ 


.281250 


M 


.781250 


if 


.296875 


tf 


.796875 


1% 


.312500 


if 


.812500 


H 


.328125 


M 


.828125 


ii 


.343750 


U 


.843750 


ff 


.359375 


tf 


.859375 


1 


.375000 




.875000 


If 


.390625 


n 


.890625 


M 


.406250 


ft 


.906250 


11 


.421875 


ff 


.921875 


iV 


.437500 


If 


.937500 


if 


.453125 


§i 


.953125 


if 


.468750 


li 


.968750 


fi 


.484375 


If 


.984375 


i 


.500000 


1 


1.000000 



PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



Belting 

Horse power of a belt velocity in feet per minute, multiplied 
by the width the product divided by 1,000. 

1 in. single belt moving at 1,000 feet per minute, 1 H. P. 

1 in. double " " " 700 " " " 1 H. P. 

It is desirable that the angle of the belt with the floor should 
not exceed 45. It is also desirable to locate the shafting and ma- 
chinery so that the belts should run off^ from each shaft in op- 
posite directions, as this arrangement will relieve the bearings 
from the friction that would result when the belts all pull one 
way on the shaft. 

The diameter of the pulleys should be as large as can be ad- 
mitted. 

The pulleys should be a little wider than the belt required for 
the work. 

Belts should be kept soft and pliable. For this purpose blood- 
warm tallow, dried in by the heat of fire or the sun, is advised. 
Castor-oil dressing is also good. 

TABLE XLVIII 

Horse Power of a Leather Belt One Inch Wide 



Velocity 
in Feet 

per 
Second. 




LACED BELTS THICKNESS 


IN INCHES. 




















1 


i 


1% 


A 


1 
4 


-h 


1 

3 




.143 


.167 


.187 


.219 


.250 


.312 


.333 


10 


.51 


.59 


.63 


.73 


.84 


1.05 


1.18 


15 


.75 


.88 


1.00 


1.16 


1.32 


1.66 


1.77 


20 


1.00 


1.17 


1.32 


1.54 


1.75 


2.19 


2.34 


25 


1.23 


1.43 


1.61 


1.88 


2.16 


2.69 


2.86 


30 


1.47 


1.72 


1.93 


2.25 


2.58 


3.22 


3.44 


35 


1.69 


1.97 


2.22 


2.59 


2.96 


3.70 


3.94 


40 


1.90 


2.22 


2.49 


2.90 


3.32 


4.15 


4.44 


45 


2.09 


2.45 


2.75 


3.21 


3.67 


4.58 


4.89 


50 


2.27 


2.65 


2.98 


3.48 


3.98 


4.97 


5.30 


55 


2.44 


2.84 


3.19 


3.72 


4.26 


5.32 


5.69 


60 


2.58 


3.01 


3.38 


3.95 


4.51 


5.64 


6.02 


65 


2.71 


3.16 


3.55 


4.14 


4.74 


5.92 


6.32 


70 


2.81 


3.27 


3.68 


4.29 


4.91 


6.14 


6.54 


75 


2.89 


3.37 


3.79 


4.42 


5.05 


6.31 


6.73 


80 


2.94 


3.43 


3.86 


4.50 


5.15 


6.44 


6.86 


85 


2.97 


3.47 


3.90 


4.55 


5.20 


6.50 


6.93 


90 


2.97 


3.47 


3.90 


4.55 


5.20 


6.50 


6.93 



The horse power becomes a maximum at 87.41 feet per second, 5,245 per minute. 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 369 

If possible to avoid it, connected shafts should never be placed 
one directly over the other, as in such case the belt must be kept 
very tight to do the work. For this purpose belts should be care- 
fully selected of well-stretched leather. 

RULE FOR FINDING LENGTH OF BELTS 

Add the diameter of the two pulleys together, multiply by 
3%, divide the product by two, add to the quotient twice the dis- 
tance between the centers of the shafts, and product will be the 
required length. 



THE TABLES ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES HAVE TO 
DO WITH THE TEMPERATURES AND MOVE- 
MENTS OF AIR, VOLUMES AND VELOCI- 
TIES, SIZES OF DUCTS, ETC., AS 
USED IN COMPUTATIONS FOR 
THE BLOWER SYSTEM 
OF HEATING AND 
VENTILATION 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION SIS 



TABT.E XLIX 

Ntjmber of Square Inches of Flue Area Required per 1,000 Cubic Feet of 
Contents for Given Velocity and Air Change 



No. 


VELOCITY OF AIR IN FLUE IN FEET PER MINUTE. 




J.VJ.lllU.UC'O 

to 

Change 

Air. 










300 


400 


500 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1,000 


1,100 


1,200 


1,300 


1,400 


1,500 


4 


120. 


90. 


72. 


60. 


51.6 


45. 


40. 


36. 


32.2 


30. 


27.6 


25.6 


21.4 


5 


96. 


72.2 


57.6 


48. 


41.1 


36.1 


32. 


28.8 


26.2 


24. 


22.2 


20.5 


19.2 


6 


80. 


60. 


48. 


40. 


34.3 


30. 


26.6 


24. 


21.8 


20. 


18.5 


17.1 


16. 


7 


68.6 


51.4 


41.1 


34.3 


29.4 


25.7 


22.9 


20.6 


18.7 


17.2 


15.7 


14.7 


13.7 


8 


60. 


45. 


36. 


30. 


25.8 


22.5 


20. 


18. 


16.1 


15. 


13.8 


12.8 


12. 


9 


53.3 


40. 


32. 


26.6 


22.9 


20. 


17.8 


16. 


14.5 


13.3 


12.3 


11.4 


10.7 


10 


48. 


36. 


28.8 


24. 


20.6 


18. 


16. 


14.4 


13.1 


12. 


11.1 


10.3 


9.6 


11 


43.6 


32.2 


26.2 


21.8 


18.7 


16.1 


14.5 


13.1 


11.9 


10.9 


10.1 


9.5 


8.7 


12 


40. 


30. 


24. 


20. 


17.2 


15. 


13.3 


12. 


10.9 


10. 


9.2 


8.6 


8. 


13 


36.9 


27.7 


22.2 


18.5 


15.7 


13.8 


12.3 


11.1 


10.1 


9.2 


8.5 


7.9 


7.4 


14 


34.3 


25.7 


20.6 


17.2 


14.7 


12.8 


11.4 


10.3 


9.5 


8.6 


7.9 


7.4 


6.9 


15 


32. 


24. 


19.2 


16. 


13.7 


12. 


10.7 


9.6 


8.7 


8. 


7.4 


6.9 


6.4 


16 


30. 


22.5 


18. 


15. 


12.9 


11.2 


10. 


9. 


8.2 


7.5 


6.9 


6.4 


6. 


17 


28.2 


21.2 


16.9 


14.1 


12.1 


10.6 


9.4 


8.5 


7.7 


7. 


6.5 


6.1 


5.6 


18 


26.6 


20. 


16. 


13.3 


11.5 


10. 


8.9 


8. 


7.3 


6.6 


6.2 


5.7 


5.3 


19 


25.3 


18.9 


15.2 


12.6 


10.8 


9.5 


8.4 


7.6 


6.9 


6.3 


5.8 


5.4 


5.1 


20 


24. 


18. 


14.4 


12. 


10.3 


9 


8. 


7.2 


6.5 


6. 


5.5 


5.1 


4.8 



To facilitate calculation of flue areas for different requirements in heating, ventila- 
tion and the general movement of air, the table above and that upon the three suc- 
ceeding pages have been prepared. The former is to be employed when in a ventilating 
system the area of the flue is to be based upon the time required to change the air within 
the room and upon the permissible velocity in the flue. The latter table indicates the 
flue area necessary for the passage of a predetermined volume of air at stated velocity. 
Values for volumes below 100 or above 1,000 cubic feet may be readily determined from 
the latter table by reading for the multiple of the given volume, and then pointing off 
the requisite number of places. Thus, if a volume of 8,750 cubic feet of air is required 
to pass through a flue at a velocity of 900 feet per minute, the cross sectional area of that 
must be 1,400 square inches. 



374 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



TABLE L 

Flue Area Required for the Passage of a Given Volume of Air at a Given 

Velocity 



Volume 

in Cubic 

Feet 

per 

Minute. 


VELOCITY IN FEET PER MINUTE. 


300 


400 


500 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1,000 


1,100 


100 


48 


36 


29 


24 


21 


18 


16 


14 


13 


125 


60 


45 


36 


30 


26 


23 


20 


18 


16 


150 


72 


54 


43 


36 


31 


27 


24 


22 


20 


175 


84 


63 


50 


42 


36 


32 


28 


25 


23 


200 


96 


72 


58 


48 


41 


36 


32 


29 


26 


225 


108 


81 


65 


54 


46 


41 


36 


32 


29 


250 


120 


90 


72 


60 


51 


45 


40 


36 


33 


275 


132 


99 


79 


66 


57 


50 


44 


40 


36 


300 


144 


108 


86 


72 


62 


54 


48 


43 


39 


325 


156 


117 


94 


78 


67 


59 


52 


47 


43 


350 


168 


126 


101 


84 


72 


63 


56 


50 


46 


375 


180 


135 


108 


90 


77 


68 


60 


54 


49 


400 


192 


144 


115 


96 


82 


72 


64 


58 


52 


425 


204 


153 


122 


102 


87 


77 


68 


61 


56 


450 


216 


162 


130 


108 


93 


81 


72 


65 


59 


475 


228 


171 


137 


114 


98 


86 


76 


68 


62 


500 


240 


180 


144 


120 


103 


90 


80 


72 


65 


525 


252 


189 


151 


126 


108 


95 


84 


76 


69 


550 


264 


198 


158 


132 


113 


99 


88 


79 


72 


575 


276 


207 


166 


138 


118 


104 


92 


83 


75 


600 


288 


216 


173 


144 


123 


108 


96 


86 


79 


625 


300 


225 


180 


150 


129 


113 


100 


90 


82 


650 


312 


234 


187 


156 


134 


117 


104 


94 


85 


. 675 


324 


243 


194 


162 


139 


122 


108 


97 


88 


700 


336 


252 


202 


168 


144 


126 


112 


101 


92 


725 


348 


261 


209 


174 


149 


131 


116 


104 


95 


750 


360 


270 


216 


180 


154 


135 


120 


108 


98 


775 


372 


279 


223 


186 


159 


140 


124 


112 


101 


800 


384 


288 


230 


192 


165 


144 


128 


115 


105 


825 


396 


297 


238 


198 


170 


149 


132 


119 


108 


850 


408 


306 


245 


204 


175 


153 


136 


122 


111 


875 


420 


315 


252 


210 


180 


158 


140 


126 


115 


900 


432 


324 


259 


216 


185 


162 


144 


130 


118 


925 


444 


333 


266 


222 


190 


167 


148 


133 


121 


950 


456 


342 


274 


228 


195 


171 


152 


137 


124 


975 


468 


351 


281 


234 


201 


176 


156 


140 


128 


1,000 


480 


360 


288 


240 


206 


180 


160 


144 


131 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 375 



TABLE LI 

Flue Area Required for the Passage of a Given Volume of Air at a Given 

Velocity — ( Continued ) 



Volume 
in Cubic 

Feet 

per 
Minute. 


VELOCITY IN FEET PER MINUTE. 


1,200 


1,300 


1,400 


1,500 


1,600 


1,700 


1,800 


1,900 


2,000 


100 


12 


11 


10 


9.6 


9. 


8.5 


8 


7.6 


7.2 


125 


15 


14 


13 


12. 


11.3 


10.6 


10 


9.5 


9. 


150 


18 


16 


15 


14.4 


13.5 


12.7 


12 


11.4 


10.8 


175 


21 


19 


18 


16.8 


15.8 


14.8 


14 


13.3 


12.6 


200 


24 


22 


21 


19.2 


18. 


16.9 


16 


15.2 


14.4 


225 


27 


25 


23 


21.6 


20.3 


19.1 


18 


17.1 


16.2 


250 


30 


28 


26 


24. 


22.5 


21.2 


20 


19. 


18. 


275 


33 


30 


28 


26.4 


24.8 


23.3 


22 


21.8 


19.8 


300 


36 


33 


31 


28.8 


27. 


25.4 


24 


22.7 


21.6 


325 


39 


36 


33 


31.2 


29.3 


27.5 


26 


24.6 


23.4 


350 


42 


39 


36 


33.6 


31.5 


29.6 


28 


26.5 


25.2 


375 


45 


42 


39 


36. 


33.8 


31.8 


30 


28.4 


27. 


400 


48 


44 


41 


38.4 


36. 


33.9 


32 


30.3 


28.8 


425 


51 


47 


44 


40.8 


38.3 


36. 


34 


32.2 


30.6 


450 


54 


50 


46 


43.2 


40.5 


38.1 


36 


34.1 


32.4 


475 


57 


53 


49 


45.6 


42.8 


40.2 


38 


36. 


34.2 


500 


60 


55 


51 


48. 


45. 


42.4 


40 


37.9 


36. 


525 


63 


58 


54 


50.4 


47.3 


44.5 


42 


39.8 


37.8 


550 


66 


61 


57 


52.8 


49.5 


46.6 


44 


41.7 


38.6 


575 


69 


64 


59 


55.2 


51.8 


48.7 


46 


43.6 


41.4 


600 


72 


66 


62 


57.6 


54. 


50.8 


48 


45.5 


43.2 


625 


75 


69 


64 


60. 


56.3 


52.9 


50 


47.4 


45. 


650 


78 


72 


67 


62.4 


58.5 


55 . 1 


52 


49.3 


46.8 


675 


81 


75 


69 


64.8 


60.8 


57.2 


54 


51.2 


48.6 


700 


84 


78 


72 


67.2 


63. 


59.3 


56 


53.1 


50.4 


725 


87 


80 


75 


69.6 


65.3 


61.4 


58 


55. 


52.2 


750 


90 


83 


77 


72. 


67.5 


63.5 


60 


56.9 


54. 


775 


93 


86 


80 


74.4 


69.8 


65.6 


62 


58.8 


56.3 


800 


96 


89 


82 


76.8 


72. 


67.8 


64 


60.6 


57.6 


825 


99 


91 


85 


79.2 


74.3 


69.9 


66 


62.5 


59.4 


850 


102 


94 


87 


81.6 


76.5 


72. 


68 


64.4 


61.2 


875 


105 


97 


90 


84. 


78.8 


74. 


70 


67.3 


63. 


900 


108 


100 


93 


86.4 


81. 


76.2 


72 


68.2 


64.8 


925 


111 


103 


95 


88.8 


83.3 


78.4 


74 


70.1 


66.6 


950 


114 


105 


98 


91.2 


85.5 


80.5 


76 


72. 


68.4 


975 


117 


108 


100 


93.6 


87.8 


82.6 


78 


73.9 


70.2 


1,000 


120 


111 


103 


96. 


90. 


84.7 


80 


75.8 


72. 



376 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



TABLE LIT 

Flue Area Required for the Passage of a Given Volume of Air at a Given 

Velocity — {Continued) 



Volume 
in Cubic 

Feet 

per 
Minute. 








VELOCITY IN FEET PEK 


MINUTE. 








2,100 


2,200 


2,300 


2,400 


2,600 


2,700 


2,800 


2,900 


3,000 


3,100 


100 


6.9 


6.6 


6.3 


6. 


5.5 


5.3 


5.1 


5. 


4.8 


4.6 


125 


8.6 


8.2 


7.8 


7.5 


6.9 


6.7 


6.4 


6.2 


6. 


5.8 


150 


10.3 


9.8 


9.4 


9. 


8. 


8. 


7.7 


7.5 


7.2 


7. 


175 


12. 


11.5 


11. 


10.5 


9.7 


9.3 


9. 


8.7 


8.4 


8.1 


200 


13.7 


13.1 


12.5 


12. 


11.1 


10.7 


10.3 


9.9 


9.6 


9.3 


225 


15.6 


14.7 


14.1 


13.5 


12.5 


12. 


11.6 


11.2 


10.8 


10.4 


250 


17.1 


16.4 


15.7 


15. 


13.9 


13.3 


12.9 


12.4 


12. 


11.6 


275 


18.9 


18. 


17.2 


16.5 


15.2 


14.7 


14.1 


13.7 


13.2 


12.8 


300 


20.6 


19.6 


18.8 


18. 


16.6 


16. 


15.4 


14.9 


14.4 


13.9 


325 


22.3 


21.3 


20.6 


19.5 


18. 


17.3 


16.7 


16.1 


15.6 


15.1 


350 


24. 


22.9 


21.9 


21. 


19.4 


18.7 


18. 


17.4 


16.8 


16.3 


375 


25.7 


24.5 


23.5 


22.5 


20.8 


20. 


19.3 


18.6 


18. 


17.4 


400 


27.4 


26.2 


25. 


24. 


22.2 


21.3 


20.6 


19.8 


19.2 


18.6 


425 


29.1 


27.8 


26.6 


25.5 


23.5 


22.7 


21.9 


21.1 


20.4 


19.7 


450 


30.9 


29.5 


28.2 


27. 


24.9 


24. 


23.1 


22.3 


21.6 


20.9 


475 


32.6 


31.1 


29.7 


28.5 


26.3 


25.3 


24.4 


23.6 


22.8 


22.1 


500 


34.3 


32.7 


31.3 


30. 


27.7 


26.7 


25.7 


24.8 


24. 


23.2 


525 


36. 


34.4 


32.9 


31.5 


29.1 


28. 


26.9 


25. 


25.2 


24.4 


550 


37.7 


36. 


34.4 


33. 


30.5 


29.3 


28.3 


27.3 


26.4 


25.5 


575 


39.4 


37.6 


36. 


34.5 


31.9 


30.7 


29.6 


28.5 


27.6 


26.7 


600 


41.1 


39.3 


37.6 


36. 


33.2 


32. 


30.8 


29.8 


28.8 


27.8 


625 


42.9 


40.9 


39.1 


37.5 


34.6 


33.3 


32.1 


31. 


30. 


29. 


650 


44.6 


42.5 


40.7 


39. 


36. 


34.7 


33.4 


32.2 


31.2 


30.2 


675 


46.3 


44.1 


42.3 


40.5 


37.5 


36. 


34.7 


33.5 


32.4 


31.3 


700 


48. 


45.8 


43.8 


42. 


38.8 


37.3 


36. 


34.7 


33.6 


32.5 


725 


49.7 


47.4 


45.4 


43.5 


40.2 


38.7 


37.3 


36. 


34.8 


33.6 


750 


51.4 


49.1 


47. 


45. 


41.5 


40. 


38.6 


37.2 


36. 


34.8 


775 


53.1 


50.7 


48.5 


46.5 


42.9 


41.3 


39.9 


38.5 


37.2 


36. 


800 


54.9 


52.4 


50.1 


48. 


44.3 


42.7 


41.2 


39.7 


38.4 


37.1 


825 


56.6 


54. 


51.7 


49.5 


45.7 


44. 


42.4 


40.9 


39.6 


38.3 


850 


58.4 


55.6 


53.2 


51. 


47.1 


45.3 


43.7 


42 .2 


40.8 


39.4 


875 


60. 


57.3 


54.8 


52.5 


48.5 


46.7 


45. 


43.4 


42. 


40.6 


900 


61.7 


58.9 


56.3 


54. 


49.9 


48. 


46.3 


44.6 


43.2 


41.8 


925 


63.4 


60.5 


57.9 


55.5 


51.3 


49.3 


47.6 


46. 


44.4 


42.9 


950 


65.1 


62.2 


59.5 


51. 


52.6 


50.7 


48.8 


47.1 


45.6 


44.1 


975 


66.8 


63.8 


61.0 


58.5 


54. 


52. 


50.2 


48.4 


46.8 


45.3 


1,000 


68.7 


66. 


62.6 


60. 


55.4 


53.3 


51.4 


49.6 


48. 


46.4 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 377 

TABLE Lni 

Weight of Round Galvanized Iron Pipe and Elbows, of the Proper Gauges 
FOR Heating and Ventilating Systems 



Gauge 

and 
Weight 
^per 
Sq. Ft. 


Diam. 

of 
Pipe. 


Area 

in 

Sq. Ins. 


Weight 

Run- 
ning 
Foot. 


Weight 

of 

Full 

Elbow. 


Gauge 

and 

Weight 

per 

Sq. Ft. 


Diam. 

of 
Pipe. 


Area 
in 

Sq. Ins. 


Weight 

Run- 
ning 
Foot. 


Weight 

Full 
Elbow. 




3 


7.1 


0.7 


0.4 




36 


1,017.9 


17.2 


124.4 




4 


12.6 


1.1 


0.9 




37 


1,075.2 


17.8 


131.4 


No. 28 


5 


19.6 


1.2 


1.2 




38 


1,134.1 


18.2 


139.4 


0.78 


6 

7 


28.3 
38.5 


1.4 
1.7 


1.7 
2.3 


No. 20 


39 
40 


1,194.6 
1,256.6 


18.7 
19.1 


146.0 
152.9 




8 


50.3 


1.9 


2.9 


1.66 


41 

42 
43 


1,320.3 
1,385.4 
1,452.2 


19.6 
20.1 
20.6 


160.7 
168.6 
176.7 














9 


63.6 


2.4 


4.3 




44 


1,520.5 


21.0 


185.0 




10 


78.5 


2.7 


5.3 




45 


1,590.4 


21.5 


193.4 


No. 26 


11 


95.0 


2.9 


6.4 




46 


1,661.9 


22.0 


202.2 


0.91 


12 
13 


113.1 
132.7 


3.2 
3.4 


7.6 

8.9 
























14 


153.9 


3.7 


10.4 




47 
48 
49 


1,734.9 
1,809.6 

1,885.7 


29.2 
29.8 
30.4 


274.3 

286.6 
298.8 














15 


176.7 


4.5 


13.5 




50 


1,963.5 


31.0 


309.9 


No. 25 


16 


201.1 


4.7 


15.1 




51 


2,042.8 


31.6 


322.5 


17 


227.0 


5.0 


17.0 


No. 18 


52 


2,123.7 


32.2 


335.1 


1.03 


18 


254.5 


5.3 


19.1 


53 


2,206.2 


33.0 


349.7 




19 


283.5 


5.6 


21.4 


2.16 


54 


2,290.2 


33.6 


363.4 




20 


314.2 


6.0 


23.9 




55 
56 
57 


2,375.8 
2,463.0 
2,551.8 


34.4 
34.9 
35.6 


377.2 
390.7 
405.1 














21 


346.4 


7.0 


29.6 




58 


2,642 . 1 


36.1 


418.8 




22 


380.1 


7.3 


32.3 




59 


2,734.0 


36.7 


433.1 


No. 24 


23 


415.5 


7.7 


35.6 




60 


2,827.4 


37.4 


448.6 


1.16 


24 
25 


452.4 
490.9 


8.0 
8.3 


38.6 
41.7 
























26 


530.9 


8.7 


45.1 




61 
62 
63 


2,922.5 
3,019.1 
3,117.3 


46.7 
47.5 
48.3 


569.7 
589.0 
608.6 














27 


572.6 


10.9 


59.1 




64 


3,217.0 


49.1 


628.5 




28 


615.7 


11.4 


64.2 




65 


3,318.3 


49.8 


647.4 




29 


660.5 


11.8 


68.6 


No. 16 


66 


3,421.2 


50.5 


666.6 


No. 22 


30 


706.9 


12.2 


73.4 


2.66 


67 


3,525.7 


51.3 


687.4 




31 


754.8 


12.6 


78.3 


68 


3,631.7 


52.1 


708.6 


1.41 


32 


804.3 


13.0 


83.4 




69 


3,739.3 


52.8 


728.6 




33 


855.3 


13.5 


88.9 




70 


3,848.5 


53.6 


750.4 




34 


907.9 


13.9 


94.3 




71 


3,959.2 


54.3 


771.0 




35 


962.1 


14.3 


99.9 




72 


4,071.5 


55.1 


793.4 













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of 


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Gf 


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X 

X 

1> 


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to' 


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Diameter of 
Main Blast- 
pipe in 
Inches. 


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w 


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RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 379 



TABLE LV 

Am 
Loss of Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch for Varying Velocities and Varying 

Diameters of Pipes 



Velocity of 




DIAMETER OP PIPE IN INCHES. 














Air, Feet 


1 


2 


3 1 4 


5 


6 


per Minute. 


























LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES 


. 




600 


.400 


.200 


.133 


.100 


.080 


.067 


1,200 


1.600 


.800 


.533 


.400 


.320 


.267 


1,800 


3.600 


1.800 


1.200 


.900 


.720 


.600 


2,400 


6.400 


3.200 


2.133 


1.600 


1.280 


1.067 


3,000 


10.000 


5.000 


3.333 


2.500 


2.000 


1.667 


3,600 


14.400 


7.200 


4.800 


3.600 


2.880 


2.400 


4,200 




9.800 


6.553 


4.900 


3.920 


3.267 


4,800 




12.800 


8.533 


6.400 


5.120 


4.267 


6,000 
600 




20.000 


13.333 


10.000 


8.000 


6.667 


DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 


" 


8 


9 1 10 


11 


12 


LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES. 


.057 


.050 


.044 


.040 


.036 


.033 


1,200 


.229 


.200 


.178 


.160 


.145 


.133 


1,800 


.514 


.450 


.400 


.360 


.327 


.300 


2,400 


.914 


.800 


.711 


.640 


.582 


.533 


3,000 


1.429 


1.250 


1.111 


1.000 


.909 


.833 


3,600 


2.057 


1.800 


1.600 


1.440 


1.309 


1.200 


4,200 


2.800 


2.450 


2.178 


1.960 


1.782 


1.633 


4,800 


3.657 


3.200 


2.844 


2.560 


2.327 


2.133 


6,000 
600 


5.714 


5.000 


4.444 


4.000 


3.636 


3.333 


DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 


14 


16 


18 1 20 


22 


24 


LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES. 


.029 


.026 


.022 


.020 


.018 


.017 


1,200 


.114 


.100 


.089 


.080 


.073 


.067 


1,800 


.257 


.225 


.200 


.180 


.164 


.156 


2,400 


.457 


.400 


.356 


.320 


.291 


.267 


3,600 


1.029 


.900 


.800 


.720 


.655 


.600 


4,200 


1.400 


1.225 


1.089 


.980 


.891 


.817 


4,800 


1.829 


1.600 


1.422 


1.280 


1.164 


1.067 


6,000 
600 


2.857 


2.500 


2.222 


2.000 


1.818 


1.667 


DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 


28 


32 


36 1 40 


44 


48 


LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES. 


.014 


.012 


.011 


.010 


.009 


.008 


1,200 


.057 


.050 


.044 


.040 


.036 


.033 


1,800 


.129 


.112 


.100 


.090 


.082 


.075 


2,400 


.239 


.200 


.178 


.160 


.145 


.133 


3,600 


.514 


.450 


.400 


.360 


.327 


.300 


4,200 


.700 


.612 


.544 


.490 


.445 


.408 


4,800 


.914 


.800 


.711 


.640 


.582 


.533 


6,000 


1.429 


1 . 250 


1.111 


1.000 


.909 


.833 



380 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 





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RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 381 



TABLE LVII 

Of the Number of Thermal Units Contained in One Pound of Water 



Temper- 
ature. 


Number 

of 
Thermal 

Units. 


In- 
crease. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Number 

of 

Thermal 

Units. 


In- 
crease. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Number 

of 

Thermal 

Units. 


In- 
crease. 


35° 


35.000 




155° 


155.339 


5.034 


275° 


276.985 


5.107 


40 


40.001 


5.001 


160 


160.374 


5.035 


280 


282.095 


5.110 


45 


45.002 


5.001 


165 


165.413 


5.039 


285 


287.210 


5.115 


50 


50.003 


5.001 


170 


170.453 


5.040 


290 


292.329 


5.119 


55 


55.006 


5.003 


175 


175.497 


5.044 


295 


297.452 


5 . 123 


60 


60.009 


5.003 


180 


180.542 


5.045 


300 


302.580 


5 . 128 


65 


65.014 


5.005 


185 


185.591 


5.049 


305 


307.712 


5.132 


70 


70.020 


5.006 


190 


190.643 


5.052 


310 


312.848 


5.136 


75 


75.027 


5.007 


195 


195.697 


5.054 


315 


317.988 


5.140 


80 


80.036 


5.009 


200 


200.753 


5.056 


320 


323 . 134 


5.146 


85 


85.045 


5.009 


205 


205.813 


5.060 


325 


328.284 


5.150 


90 


90.055 


5.010 


210 


210.874 


5.061 


330 


333.438 


5.154 


95 


95.067 


5.012 


215 


215.939 


5.065 


335 


338.596 


5.158 


100 


100.080 


5.013 


220 


221.007 


5.068 


340 


343.759 


5.163 


105 


105.095 


5.015 


225 


226.078 


5.071 


345 


348.927 


5.168 


110 


110.110 


5.015 


230 


231.153 


5.075 


350 


354 . 101 


5.174 


115 


115.129 


5.019 


235 


236.232 


5.079 


355 


359.280 


5.179 


120 


120.149 


5.020 


240 


241.313 


5.081 


360 


364.464 


5.184 


125 


125 . 169 


5.020 


245 


246.398 


5.085 


365 


369.653 


5.189 


130 


130.192 


5.023 


250 


251.487 


5.089 


370 


374.846 


5.193 


135 


135.217 


5.025 


255 


256.579 


5.092 


375 


380.044 


5.198 


140 


140.245 


5 . 028 


260 


261.674 


5.095 


380 


385.247 


5.203 


145 


145.175 


5.030 


265 


266.774 


5.100 


385 


390.456 


5.209 


150 
1 


150.305 


5.030 


270 


271.878 


5.104 


390 


395.672 


5.216 



382 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE LVIII 

Volume and Density of Air at Various Temperatures 



Temperature. 
Degrees. 


Volume of 1 lb. of Air at 

Atmospheric Presssure of 

14.7 lbs. 


Density or Weight of 1 

Cubic foot of Air at 14.7 lbs. 

Lbs. 




Cubic Feet. 





11.583 


.086331 


32 


12.387 


.080728 


40 


12.586 


.079439 


50 


12.84 


.077884 


62 


13.141 


.076097 


70 


13.342 


.07495 


80 


13.593 


.073565 


90 


13.845 


.07223 


100 


14.096 


.070942 


120 


14.592 


.0685 


140 


15.1 , 


.066221 


160 


15.603 


.064088 


180 


16 . 106 


.06209 


200 


16.606 


.06021 


210 


16.86 


.059313 


212 


16.91 


.059135 


220 


17.111 


.058442 


240 


17.612 


.056774 


260 


18.116 


.0552 


280 


18.621 


.05371 


300 


19.121 


.052297 


320 


19.624 


.050959 


340 


20.126 


.049686 


360 


20.63 


.048476 


380 


21 . 131 


.047323 


400 


21.634 


.046223 


425 


22.262 


.04492 


450 


22.89 


.043686 


475 


23.518 


.04252 


500 


24 . 146 


.041414 


525 


24.775 


.040364 


550 


25.403 


.039365 


575 


26.031 


.038415 


600 


26.659 


.03751 


650 


27.915 


.035822 


700 


29.171 


.03428 


750 


30.428 


.032865 


800 


31.684 


.031561 


850 


32.941 


.030358 


900 


34.197 


.029242 


950 


35.454 


.028206 


1,000 


36.811 


.027241 


1,500 


49.375 


.020295 


2,000 


61.94 


.016172 


2,500 


74.565 


.013441 


3,000 


87.13 


.011499 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 



383 



TABLE LIX 

Influence of the Temperature of Air upon the Conditions of Its Movement 



Temper- 
ature in 
Degrees, 
Fahr. 


Relative 

Velocity 

Due to the 

Same 
Pressure. 


Relative 
Pressure 
Necessary 
to Pro- 
duce the 

Same 
Velocity. 


Relative 

Weight of 

Air Moved 

at the 

Same 

Velocity. 


Relative 

Velocity 
Necessary 

to Move 
the Same 

Weight 
of Air. 


Relative 

Pressure 

Necessary 

to Produce 

the 

Velocity 

to Move 

the Same 

Weight 

of Air. 


Relative 
Power 

Necessary 
to Move 
the Same 
Volume of 
Air at the 

Same 
Velocity. 


Relative 

Power 

Necessary 

to Move 
the Same 
Weight of 
Air at the 
Velocity in 
Column 5 

and the 
Pressure in 
Column 6. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


30 


0.98 


1.04 


1.04 


0.96 


0.96 


1.04 


0.92 


40 


0.99 


1.02 


1.02 


0.98 


0.98 


1.02 


0*96 


50 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 


60 


1.01 


0.98 


0.98 


1.02 


1.02 


0.98 


1.04 


70 


1.02 


0.96 


0.96 


1.04 


1.04 


0.96 


1.08 


80 


1.03 


0.94 


0.94 


1.06 


1.06 


0.94 


1.12 


90 


1.04 


0.93 


0.93 


1.08 


1.08 


0.93 


1.17 


100 


1.05 


0.91 


0.91 


1.10 


1.10 


0.91 


1.21 


125 


1.07 


0.87 


0.87 


1.15 


1.15 


0.87 


1.32 


150 


1.09 


0.84 


0.84 


1.20 


1.20 


0.84 


1.43 


175 


1.11 


0.81 


0.81 


1.24 


1.24 


0.81 


1.55 


200 


1.14 


0.78 


0.78 


1.29 


1.29 


0.78 


1.67 


225 


1.16 


0.75 


0.75 


1.34 


1.34 


0.75 


1.80 


250 


1.18 


0.72 


0.72 


1.39 


1.39 


0.72 


1.93 


275 


1.20 


0.69 


0.69 


1.44 


1.44 


0.69 


2.07 


300 


1.22 


0.67 


0.67 


1.49 


1.49 


0.67 


2.22 


325 


1.24 


0.65 


0.65 


1.54 


1.54 


0.65 


2.36 


350 


1.26 


0.63 


0.63 


1.59 


1.59 


0.63 


2.51 


375 


1.28 


0.61 


0.61 


1.63 


1.63 


0.61 


2.66 


400 


1.30 


0.59 


0.59 


1.68 


1.68 


0.59 


2.82 


425 


1.32 


0.58 


0.58 


1.73 


1.73 


0.58 


2.99 


450 


1.34 


0.56 


0.56 


1.78 


1.78 


0.56 


3.17 


475 


1.35 


0.55 


0.55 


1.83 


1.83 


0.55 


3.35 


500 


1.37 


0.53 


0.53 


1.88 


1.88 


0.53 


3.53 


525 


1.39 


0.52 


0.52 


1.93 


1.93 


0.52 


3.72 


550 


1.41 


0.51 


0.51 


1.98 


1.98 


0.51 


3.92 


575 


1.43 


0.49 


0.49 


2.03 


2.03 


0.49 


4.12 


600 


1.44 


0.48 


0.48 


2.08 


2.08 


0.48 


4.33 


625 


1.46 


0.47 


0.47 


2.13 


2.13 


0.47 


4.54 


650 


1.48 


0.46 


0.46 


2.18 


2.18 


0.46 


4.75 


675 


1.49 


0.45 


0.45 


2.22 


2.22 


0.45 


4.93 


700 


1.51 


0.44 


0.44 


2.27 


2.27 


44 


5.15 


725 


1.52 


0.43 


0.43 


2.32 


2.32 


0.43 


5.38 


750 


1.54 


0.42 


0.42 


2.37 


2.37 


0.42 


5.62 


775 


1.56 


0.41 


0.41 


2.42 


2.42 


0.41 


5.86 


800 


1.57 


0.40 


0.40 


2.47 


2.47 


0.40 


6.10 



384 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 

TABLE LX 

Velocity Created, Volume Dischaeged and Horse Power Required when 

Air under a Given Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch is Allowed 

TO Escape into the Atmosphere 

In the foUomng table the volume is proportional to the velocity. 

The power varies as the cube of the velocity. 

" Blast area " generally means the maximum area over which the velocity of the 
air will equal the velocity of the pipes at the tips of the floats. If this area is decreased 
the volume will be decreased, but the pressure will remain constant. If this area is 
increased the pressure is lowered, but the volume somewhat increased. 

This table is calculated for 50° F. temperature. Different temperature will efipect 
the result. The movement of air through pipes will also change results. 





Velocity of Air Escaping into 


Volume Dis- 




Pressure 


Atmosphere. 


charged in One 
Minute Through 


Horse Power 


Ounces per 




Effective Area of 

One Square Inch, 

in Cubic Feet. 


of Air Blast. 


Square Inch. 


In Feet per Second. 


In Feet per 
Minute. 


^ 


30.47 


1,828 


12.69 


0.0004 


M 


43.08 


2,585 


17.95 


001 


- Vs 


52.75 


3,165 


21'. 98 


0.002 


1// 


60.90 


3,654 


25.37 


0.003 


% 


68.07 


4,084 


28.36 


0.005 


% 


74.54 


4,473 


31.06 


0.006 


Vs 


80.50 


4,830 


33.54 


0.008 


1 


86.03 


5,162 


35.85 


0.01 


IM 


96.13 


5,768 


40.06 


0.014 


1^ 


105.25 


6,315 


43.86 


0.02 


iM 


113.64 


6,818 


47.34 


0.023 


2 


121.41 


7,284 


50.59 


0.028 


2J€ 


128.70 


7,722 


53.63 


0.033 


23^ 


135.59 


8,136 


56.50 


0.039 


%% 


142 . 14 


8,528 


59.22 


0.044 


3 


148.38 


8,903 


61.83 


0.05 


33^ 


160.10 


9,606 


66.71 


0.06 


4 


170.98 


10,259 


71.24 


0.08 


4^ 


181 . 16 


10,870 


75.48 


0.09 


5 


190.76 


11,446 


79.48 


0.11 


5^ 


199.86 


11,992 


83.24 


0.12 


6 


208.53 


12,512 


86.89 


0.14 


7 


224.77 


13,486 


93.66 


0.18 


8 


239.80 


14,388 


99.92 


0.22 


9 


253.83 


15,230 


105.76 


0.26 


10 


267.00 


16,020 


111.25 


0.30 


11 


279.70 


16,768 


116.45 


0.35 


12 


291.30 


17,478 


121.38 


0.40 


13 


302 . 59 


18,155 


126.06 


0.45 


14 


313.38 


18,803 


130.57 


0.50 


15 


323.73 


19,424 


134.89 


0.55 


16 


333.68 


20,021 


139.03 


0.61 


17 


343.26 


20,596 


143.03 


0.66 


18 


352.52 


21,151 


146.88 


0.72 


19 


361 46 


21,688 


150.61 


0,78 


20 


370 . 13 


22,208 


154.22 


0.84 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 385 



TABLE LXI 

Moisture Absorbed by Am 

The Quantity of Water Which Air is Capable of Absorbing to the Point of Maximum 
Saturation, in Grains per Cubic Foot for Various Temperatures 



Degrees. 
Fahrenheit. 


Grains in a 
Cubic Foot. 


Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


Grains in a 
Cubic Foot. 


10 


1.1 


85 


12.43 


15 


1.31 


90 


14.38 


20 


1.56 


95 


16.60 


25 


1.85 


100 


19.12 


30 


2.19 


105 


22.0 


32 


2.35 


110 


25.5 


35 


2.59 


115 


30.0 


40 


3.06 


130 


42.5 


45 


3.61 


141 


58.0 


50 


4.24 


157 


85.0 


55 


4.97 


170 


112.5 


60 


5.82 


179 


138.0 


65 


6.81 


188 


166.0 


70 


7.94 


195 


194.0 


75 


9.24 


212 


265.0 


80 


10.73 







386 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



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RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 387 



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388 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 



TABLE LXIV 

Pressure in Inches of Water and Corresponding Pressure in Ounces, with 
Velocities of Air Due to Pressures 



Pressure 
per Square 
Inch in 
Inches of 
Water. 


Corresponding 
Pressure in 
Ounces per 

Square Inch. 


Velocity Due 
to the Pres- 
sure in Feet 
per Minute. 


Pressure per 

Square Inch 

in Inches of 

Water. 


Corresponding 
Pressure in 
Ounces per 
Square Inch. 


Velocity Due 
to the Pres- 
sure in Feet 
per Minute. 


y.. 


.01817 


696.78 


^ 


.36340 


3,118.38 


X, 


.03634 


987.66 


M 


.43608 


3,416.64 


Vs 


.07268 


1,393.75 


% 


.50870 


3,690.62 


Xe 


. 10902 


1,707.00 


1 


.58140 


3,946 . 17 


M 


. 14536 


1,971.30 


IM 


.7267 


4,362.62 


X, 


.18170 


2,204 . 16 


13^ 


.8721 


4,836.06 


Vs 


.21804 


2,414.70 


\% 


1.0174 


5,224.98 


y^ 


.29072 


2,788.74 


2 


1 . 1628 


5,587.58 



TABLE LXV 

Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch with Velocities of Air Due to Pressures 



Pressure 

in Ounces 

per Square 

Inch. 


Velocity Due 
to the Pres- 
sure in Feet 
per Minute. 


Pressure in 

Ounces per 

Square Inch. 


Velocity Due 
to the Pres- 
sure in Feet 
per Minute. 


Pressure in 
Ounces per 
Square inch. 


Velocity Due 
to the Pres- 
sure in Feet 
per Minute. 


.25 


2,582 


2.75 


8,618 


7.50 


14,374 


.50 


3,658 


3.00 


9,006 


8.00 


14,861 


.75 


4,482 


3.50 


9,739 


9.00 


15,795 


1.00 


5,178 


4.00 


10,421 


10.00 


16,684 


1.25 


5,792 


4.50 


11,065 


11.00 


17,534 


1.50 


6,349 


5.00 


11,676 


12.00 


18,350 


1.75 


6,861 


5.50 


12,259 


13.00 


19,138 


2.00 


7,338 


6.00 


12,817 


14.00 


19,901 


2.25 


7,787 


6.50 


13,354 


15.00 


20,641 


2.50 


8,213 


7.00 


13,873 

■ 


16.00 


21,360 



RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 389 

TABLE LXVI 

Weights of Galvanized Iron Pipe per Lineal Foot 







GAUGE 


OF IRON NUMBERS. 


Diameter 








of Pipe 








in Inches. 














18 


30 


33 


34 


36 


3 


2^ 


1% 


1%. 


1% 


1 


4 


%% 


2% 


1% 


\y<i 


1% 


5 


3M 


2% 


2 


1% 


13^ 


6 


m 


3 


2% 


2 


1% 


7 


4>^ 


33^ 


2% 


2% 


3 


8 


5M 


4 


3 


2% 


^^ 


9 


5M 


43^ 


3% 


3 


3% 


10 


6M 


4% 


33^ 


3% 


33^ 


11 


6^ 


5% 


3% 


33^ 


3% 


12 


73^ 


5% 


4% 


3% 


3 


13 


8 


6% 


4K 


4 


3% 


14 


83^ 


6% 


4% 


4% 


33^ 


15 


9M 


7% 


5% 


4% 


3% 


16 


9M 


7% 


5J^ 


5 


4 


17 


101^ 


8 


6 


5% 


4% 


18 


lOM 


83^ 


6% 


53^ 


43^ 


19 


113^ 


9 


6% 


5% 


4% 


20 


12 


93^ 


7 


6 


5% 


21 


12K 


9% 


73^ 


■ 63^ 


53^ 


22 


13M 


10% 


7% 


6% 


5% 


23 


14 


11 


8% 


7 


6 


24 


14% 


113^ 


8% 


lYi 


63^ 


26 


15% 


123^ 


9% 


7% 


63^ 


28 


16% 


131/^ 


9% 


83^ 


7 


30 


18 


14 


103^ 


9 


73^ 


32 


19% 


15 


11% 


9% 


8 


34 


20% 


15% 


13 


10% 


83^ 


36 


213^ 


16% 


133^ 


10% 


9 


38 


22% 


18 


133^ 


113^ 


93^ 


40 


24 


18% 


14 


12 


10 


42 


25 


193^ 


14% 


12^ 


101^ 


44 


26% 


303^ 


153^ 


13 


11 


46 


273^ 


31% 


16 


13% 


113^ 


48 


283^ 


23% 


16% 


14% 


12 


50 


29% 


33 


173^ ■ 


15 


123^ 


52 


31% 


34% 


18% 








... 1 


54 


323^ 


35 


18% 














56 


33% 


26 


19 














58 


35 


26% 


20% 














60 


36% 


27^ 


20% 














63 


38% 


29 


21% 














66 


40 


30% 


22% 














69 


41% 


32% 


23% 














72 


431'^ 


33% 


25 








... 1 



The figures in bold-faced type represent weight of round piping ordinarily used in 
heating work. 



INDEX 



Advantages of steam heating, 114. 

Air, circulation of, by direct radia- 
tion, 98. 

Air, circulation of, by indirect radia- 
tion, 99. 

Air cleansing, 233, 234. 

Air compressor, Johnson, 312. 

Air, conditions of its movement, 383. 

Air ducts for ventilating, 248, 250. 

Air ducts, indirect heating, 94. 

Air, expansion of, 349. 

Air, humidity of, 259, 260. 

Air, influence of the temperature, 383. 

Air, loss of pressure in pipes, 379. 

Air, method of measuring velocity, 
258. 

Air, moisture absorbed by, 385. 

Air necessary for ventilation, 213, 218. 

Air required to burn coal, 349. 

Air, table of velocities due to pressure, 
388. 

Air valve, 77. 

Air valve, compression, 77. 

Air valves, automatic, 78, 79. 

Air, velocity at furnace register, 349. 

Air, velocity, volume, and horse power 
required, 384. 

Air, volume and density at various 
pressures, 382. 

Air, volume necessary to maintain 
given standard of purity, 387. 

Air, wire screen for cleansing, 233. 

Altitude gauge, 146. 

Anemometer, description of, 258. 



Angles, measurements for, 209, 210, 
349. 

Angle valve, 74. 

Apparatus for testing blower systems, 
257, 261. 

Area of circle, 350. 

Areas of circles, table of, 358. 

Artificial heating apparatus, evolu- 
tion of, 22. 

Artificial heating, methods of, 23. 

Artificial water fine, 205, 206. 

Asbestos, 295. 

Aspirating coil, to determine size of, 
349. 

Atmosphere, moisture in the, 386. 

Attention to boilers, 330, 331. 

Automatic damper regulator, 50, 53, 
300. 

Automatic water feeders, 287» 

Back-pressure valves, 282. 
Belting, horse power of, 368. 
Belting, rule for finding length, 369. 
Blow-off cock, 53, 54. 
Boiler, All Right, 33. 
Boiler, Bundy, 33. 
Boiler, common type of upright tubu- 
lar, 28. 
Boiler covering, 293. 
Boilers, cross-connecting, 206, 209. 
Boiler, Dunning, 29. 
Boilers, early types of, 26. 
Boiler explosions, 340, 341. 
Boilers, feed water required, 364. 



391 



INDEX 



Boiler, Florida, 32. 
Boiler, Gold, 30. 
Boiler, Gorton, 34. 
Boilers, grate surface of, 41. 
Boiler, Haxtun, 29. 
Boiler, locomotive fire-box, 31. 
Boiler, manner of bricking locomo- 
tive fire-box, 43, 44. 
Boiler, Mills, 30. 

Boiler, original type of Furman, 32. 
Boiler, Page Safety Sectional, 32. 
Boilers, proper attention to, 330, 331. 
Boilers, removing oil and dirt from, 

331, 332. 
Boiler setting, 42. 
Boiler, shell of Dunning, 28. 
Boiler, standard type of horizontal 

tubular, 27. 
Boiler surfaces and settings, 40. 
Boiler, volunteer, 32. 
Boilers, water surface of, 41. 
Boiler, what constitutes a good one, 

38. 
Boiling point of water, 347. 
Boiling point of water, table, 142. 
Boiling points of fluids, 353. 
Box base for direct-indirect radiator, 

96. 
Boxing indirect radiators, 92, 93. 
Brass, to clean, 351. 
Branch tees, 69, 71. 
Bricking tubular boilers, materials 

required, 360. 
Brick setting tubular boilers with full 

fronts, 46. 
Brick setting tubular boilers with 

half fronts, 48. 
British thermal heat unit (B. T. U.), 

19. 
Bronzing, painting, and decoration, 

335, 336. 



Broomell vapor-heating system, 178, 

181. 
Bucket traps, 263, 264. 
Business methods, 316, 328. 

Capacities of pumps, 366. 

Capacity of stacks, 363. 

Care of heating apparatus, 329, 330. 

Care of tools, 333, 334. 

Casing indirect radiators, 92, 93. 

Cast-iron fittings, 69. 

Cast iron, to harden, 352. 

Cast-iron fittings, types of, 70. 

Cast-iron flanges, 71. 

Cast-iron flanges, schedule of, 71. 

Cement for leaky boilers, 350. 

Cement for steam boilers, 350. 

Central - station hot - water heating, 

291, 292. 
Check valve, 76. 
Chimney flue, 56. 
Chimney flue, capacity of, 59. 
Chimney flue, elements of, 59. 
Chimney flue, proper construction of, 

56, 58. 
Chimney flue, table of sizes, 58. 
Chimneys, tables of heights and area, 

61. 
Circles, table of areas, 358. 
Circle, to find area of, 350. 
Circle, to find circumference of, 349. 
Circle, to find diameter of, 350. 
Circulation of air by direct radiator, 

98. 
Circulation of air by indirect radiator, 

99. 
Circumference of circle, 349. 
Coal, air necessary to burn, 349. 
Coal, heat units in, 348. 
Coal, weight of anthracite, 348. 
Coal, weight of bituminous, 348. 



INDEX 



393 



Coil stands and hook plates, 90. 

Coils for tanks, sizes of, 198. 

Comparison of thermometric scales, 
357. 

Condensing engines, water required, 
349. 

Contracts, special features of, 328. 

Contracts, specifications of, 319, 328. 

Cost, manner of estimating, 317, 318. 

Cost of coal for steam power, 362. 

Cost of mechanical heating and ven- 
tilation, 255, 257. 

Couplings, wrought-iron, malleable, 
68. 

Covering, pipe and boiler, 293, 298. 

Cross-connecting boilers, 206, 209. 

Cylindrical tank, to find capacity of, 
348, 351. 

Damper, double, for round flue, 314. 

Damper, double, for square flue, 314. 

Damper regulator, automatic, 50, 53, 
300. 

Damper regulator, low-pressure, 51. 

Damper regulator, manner of con- 
necting, 52. 

Decimal equivalents of an inch, table 
of, 367. 

Density of air at various tempera- 
tures, 382. 

Diameter of circle, 350. 

Diameter of pipes, table for equal- 
izing, 378. 

Diaphragm motor, powers, 304. 

Diaphragm radiator valve, 303, 313. 

D. & R. regulator, 307, 308. 

Direct-indirect radiators, 95, 96. 

Dirt, removing from boilers, 331, 
332. 

District heating, 288, 292. 

Domestic water heating, 194, 198. 



Ducts, sizes of, for indirect heating, 

94. 
Dunham vacuo-vapor system, 183, 

187. 

Early history of heating, 15. 
Early history of ventilation, 16. 
Early types of boilers, 26. 
Eccentric fittings, use of, 114. 
Efficiency determined by summer 

tests, 332, 333. 
Engines for blower systems, types of, 

245, 248. 
Equalizing diam.eter of pipes, 378. 
Estimate, form of, 317, 318. 
Estimating, 316, 319. 
Estimating radiation, 97, 102. 
Estimating radiation for greenhouses, 

157, 158. 
Estimating radiation, rules for, 100, 

102. 
Evolution of artificial heating ap- 
paratus, 22. 
Exhaust steam, heating capacity of, 

118. 
Exhaust-steam heating, 115, 119. 
Exhaust-steam heating, necessary 

fixtures, 116. 
Exhaust-steam heating, plan of, 117. 
Exhaust-vacuum systems, 165, 173. 
Expansion of air, 349. 
Expansion of pipe, to find, 351. 
Expansion of water, 347. 
Expansion tank, 125, 127. 
Expansion tank, automatic, 127. 
Expansion-tank connections, 126, 

127, 134, 135, 142, 143. 
Expansion tank, table of sizes, 128. 
Expansion tank, to determine size, 

349. 
Expansion traps, 263. 



394 



INDEX 



Explosion of boilers, 340, 341. 
Explosions, prevention of, 341, 342. 

Factory heating and ventilating, 253, 

255. 
Ean engines for blower systems, 245, 

248. 
Fans for blowing and exhausting, 

238, 240. 
Features of contracts, 328. 
Feed- water heaters, 275, 276. 
Feed-water required by boilers, 364. 
Firing tools and brushes, 54. 
Fittings, cast-iron, 69. 
Fittings, eccentric, 114. 
Flanges, cast-iron, 70, 71. 
Float traps, 264, 265. 
Floor and ceiling plates, 149. 
Flues, area required for ventilation, 

373, 376. 
Fluids, boiling points of, 353. 
Forms of radiating surfaces, 81. 
Fuel, consumption of, 348. 
Fusible plug, 54. 
Future of vacuum heating, 187, 188. 

Galvanized iron pipe, weight of, 377, 
389. 

Gate valve, 74, 75, 76. 

Gauge, altitude, 146. 

Gauge glass and water column, 53, 
54. 

Gauges and their fractional equiva- 
lents, 351. 

Globe valve, 74, 75, 76. 

Gorton system vacuum heating, 181, 
183. 

Governor for pump, 280, 281. 

Grate surface in boilers, 41. 

Greenhouse heating, 155, 162. 

Greenhouse piping, methods of, 159, 
162. 



Guaranty, bad features of, 337, 340. 
Guaranty, forms of, 337, 340. 

Healthfulness of furnace heating vs. 

steam or hot water, 25. 
Heart of the heating system, 26. 
Heat absorbed by bodies, 21. 
Heat, how m.easured, 19. 
Heat, how transferred, 18, 20. 
Heat, nature of, 18. 
Heat unit, British thermal unit, 19. 
Heat units in anthracite coal, 348. 
Heat, utilizing waste, 342, 346. 
Heaters, feed-water, 275, 276. 
Heaters for blower systems, types of, 

239, 245. 
Heating apparatus, average life and 

cost, 24. 
Heating apparatus, care of, 329, 330. 
Heating, artificial methods of, 23. 
Heating by exhaust steam, 115, 119. 
Heating by hot water, 120, 141. 
Heating by steam, 103, 114. 
Heating capacity of exhaust steam, 

118. 
Heating capacity of tubular boilers, 

349. 
Heating, district method, 288, 292. 
Heating, early history of, 15. 
Heating greenhouses, 155, 162. 
Heating, miscellaneous, 189, 198. 
Heating of swimming pools, 189, 

194. 
Heating system, Broomell vapor, 178, 

181. 
Heating system, Dunham, 183, 187. 
Heating system, Gorton, 181, 183. 
Heating system, K-M-C (Morgan), 

174, 175. 
Heating system, Paul, 168, 173. 
Heating system, Ryan, 178, 179. 



INDEX 



395 



Heating system, Traiie mercury seal, 
175, 178. 

Heating systems, vacuum-exhaust, 
165, 173. 

Heating system, vacuum-vapor, 183. 

Heating system. Vacuum Vapor Com- 
pany, 181. 

Heating system, Van Auken, 173. 

Heating system, vapor, 178, 180. 

Heating system, Webster, 165, 168. 

Heating, vacuum systems, 163, 188. 

Heating and ventilating factories, 
253, ^55. 

Heating and ventilating, relative 
cost, 255, 257. 

Heating water for domestic purposes, 
194, 198. 

High temperature thermometer, 258. 

Honeywell heat generator, 150, 152. 

Hook plates and coil stands, 90. 

Horse power, definition of, 19. 

Horse power of belting, 368. 

Hot-blast heating and ventilation, 
224, 261. 

Hot-blast heating, growth and im- 
provement, 224, 225. 

Hot- water heaters, 35. 

Hot-water heater. Carton, 37. 

Hot- water heater, early type of Gur- 
ney, 35. 

Hot-water heater, Hitchings, 36. 

Hot-water heater, improved Gurney, 
36. 

Hot-water heater, perfect, 36. 

Hot-water heater, Spence, 35. 

Hot-water heater, thermo, 38. 

Hot-water heating, 120, 140. 

Hot-water heating appliances, 146, 
154. 

Hot- water heating, central - station 
method, 291, 292. 



Hot-water heating, methods, 121. 

Hot-water heating, modified over- 
head system, 135. 

Hot-water heating, pipe connections, 
132. 

Hot-water heating, pressure systems, 
141, 145. 

Hot-water heating, size of main for 
one pipe, 139. 

Hot-water heating, sizes of mains 
two-pipe system, 124. 

Hot-water heating, special fittings, 
138. 

Hot-water heating, specifications and 
bid, 324, 328. 

Hot-water heating, the circuit sys- 
tem, 136, 139. 

Hot-water heating, the overhead sys- 
tem, 128, 136. 

Hot-water heating, the two-pipe sys- 
tem, 121, 128. 

Hot-water heating, why water circu- 
lates, 139, 140. 

Hot-water radiator connections, 201, 
203. 

Hot-water thermometer, 147, 148. 

Hot- water thermometer, method of 
attaching, 148. 

Howard regulator, 308, 309. 

Hygrometer, wet and dry bulb, 259, 
261. 

Importance of ventilation, 211, 213. 

Improper use of tees, 203. 

Indirect heating, location of regis- 
ters, 91, 93. 

Indirect heating, sizes of air ducts 
and registers, 94. 

Indirect heating, surface required, 
100, 102. 

Indirect radiators, 84, 92, 93. 



396 



INDEX 



Indirect radiators, casing of, 92, 93. 

Indirect radiators, method of sup- 
porting, 95. 

Injectors, 283, 285. 

Inlets, location of those for fresh air, 
221. 

Inspirators, 285, 286. 

Johnson air compressor, 312. 
Johnson regulator, 312, 313. 
Johnson system of temperature reg- 
ulation, 311, 315. 

K-M-C (Morgan) system, vacuum 
heating, 174, 175. 

Labor-saving suggestions, 334, 335. 

Latent heat of steam at various 
pressures, 359. 

Lawler regulator, 311. 

Leaky boilers, cement for, 350. 

Length of belts, rule for determining, 
369. 

Location of fresh-air inlets, 221. 

Location of registers, indirect heat- 
ing, 91, 93. 

Locating radiating surfaces, 91. 

Loss of pressure of air delivery 
through pipes, 379. 

Machinery, to prevent rusting, 352. 

Marble, to remove stains from, 352. 

Measurement of offsets, 349. 

Measurements for 45° and other an- 
gles, 209, 210. 

Measurements for setting tubular 
boilers with full fronts, 45. 

Measurements for setting tubular 
boilers with half fronts, 47. 

Measuring pipe and fittings, 72. 

Mechanical heating and ventilation, 
an ideal system, 229, 238. 



Mechanical heating and ventilation, 

capacity required, 227, 228. 
Mechanical heating and ventilation, 

methods employed, 225, 227. 
Mechanical ventilating apparatus, 

details of, 248, 252. 
Mechanical ventilation, American 

Blower Co.'s method, 234. 
Mechanical ventilation and hot blast 

heating, 224, 261. 
Mechanical ventilation, Buffalo 

Forge Co.'s method, 230, 233. 
Mechanical ventilation, growth and 

improvement, 224, 225. 
Mechanical ventilation, New York 

Blower Co.'s method, 235. 
Mechanical ventilation, quality of 

air supphed, 228, 229. 
Mechanical ventilation, Sturtevant 

method, 236. 
Mechanical ventilation, typical meth- 
od for schools, 238. 
Melting points of metals, 353. 
Metals, melting points of, 353. 
Metal, to inscribe, 352. 
Methods of artificial heating, 23. 
Methods of greenhouse piping, 159, 

162. 
Methods of heating business, 316,, 

328. 
Methods of pipe construction, 203^ 

205. 
Methods of ventilation, 218, 223. 
Metric system, table of, 355. 
Minneapolis regulator, 310. 
Miscellaneous, 329, 346. 
Miscellaneous heating, 189, 198. 
Mitre pipe coil, 86. 
Mixing dampers, 250, 252. 
Moisture absorbed by air, 385. 
Moisture in the atmosphere, 386. 



INDEX 



397 



National regulator, 306, 307. 
Nature of heat, 18. 
Nipples, table of sizes, 68. 
Nipples, wrought-iron, 67. 

Offset, measurement of, 349. 
Oil, removing from boilers, 331, 332. 
Oil separators, 273, 275. 
One-pipe system, hot-water, 137, 139. 
One-pipe system, steam, 103, 111. 
O. S. hot- water fitting, 131. 
Oxygen, necessity and importance of, 
211, 212. 

Painting, bronzing, and decoration, 
335, 336. 

Paul system, exhaust-steam heating, 
168, 173. 

Phelps heat retainer, 153, 154. 

Pipe, 63. 

Pipe and fittings, method of measur- 
ing, 72. 

Pipe and radiator connections, 199, 
210. 

Pipe, bending, 64. 

Pipe coils, 86, 88. 

Pipe coils, method of building, 89. 

Pipe construction, methods of, 203, 
205. 

Pipe covering, 293, 298. 

Pipe covering, tests, 294. 

Pipe, expansion of, 64, 65, 351. 

Pipe hangers, 65. 

Pipe, table of extra strong, 361. 

Pipe, table of double extra strong, 
361. 

Pipe, table of standard wrought-iron, 
63. 

Pipe, threading, 64. 

Pipe, to ascertain whether wrought- 
iron or steel, 66. 



Pipe, wrought-iron or steel, 66. 
Plates, floor and ceiling, 149. 
Powers system heat regulation, 303, 

305. 
Pressure appliances, 150, 154. 
Pressure of water, 348. 
Prevention of explosions, 341, 342. 
Properties of saturated steam, 359. 
Proposal and bid, 319, 328. 
Pulleys, size and speed of, 350. 
Pump, diameters and capacities, 366. 
Pump governors and regulators, 280, 

281. 
Pumps, steam, 276, 279. 
Pumps, vacuum, 279, 280. 

Radiating power of bodies, 20. 
Radiating surfaces, forms of, 81. 
Radiating surfaces, pipe coils, 86, 88. 
Radiating surfaces, proper location, 

91. 
Radiation for greenhouses, 157, 158. 
Radiation, rules for estimating, 100, 

102. 
Radiator and pipe connections, 199, 

210. 
Radiator connections, hot- water, 201, 

203. 
Radiator connections, steam, 199, 

201. 
Radiators, decoration of, 335, 336. 
Radiators, direct-indirect, 95, 96. 
Radiators, indirect, 84, 92, 93. 
Radiators, types of, 81, 85. 
Radiator valves, 74. 
Radiators, wall, 85. 
Radiators, window, 85. 
Reducing pressure valves, 283. 
Registers for indirect heating, sizes 

of, 94. 
Regulator, D. & R., 307, 308. 



398 



INDEX 



Regulator, Howard, 308, 309. 

Regulator, Imperial Climax, 300. 

Regulator, Johnson, 312, 313. 

Regulator, Lawler, 311. 

Regulator, Minneapolis, 310. 

Regulator, National, 306, 307. 

Regulator, Powers, 301, 302. 

Regulators, pump, 280, 281. 

Relation between temperature of 
feed water and evaporative capac- 
ity of boiler, 364. 

Relative pressure, velocity and weight 
of air, 383. 

Removing grease stains from mar- 
ble, 352. 

Remo\T[ng oil and dirt from boilers, 
331, 332. 

Removing rust from steel, 352. 

Required flue area for given velocity 
and air change, 373. 

Required flue area for passage of air, 
374, 375, 376. 

Required quantity of feed water to 
supply boiler, 364. 

Return bend pipe coil, 87. 

Return branch tee coil, 87. 

Revolutions of pulleys, to find, 350. 

Round galvanized iron pipe and el- 
bows, weight of, 377. 

Rule for calculating size and speed 
of pulleys, 350. 

Rules for estimating radiation for 
greenhouses, 157, 158. 

Rules, tables, and other information, 
347, 389. 

Ryan system, vacuum heating, 178, 
179. 

Safety valves, 49. 

Safety valves on expansion tanks, 
143, 144. 



Saturated steam, properties of, 359. 

Schoolhouse heating and ventilating,, 
typical methods, 230, 238. 

Schoolhouse ventilation, cost of, 256,^ 
257. 

Schoolhouse ventilation, Massachu- 
setts laws for, 215. 

Separators, steam and oil, 273, 275. 

Setting direct-indirect radiators, 95. 

Setting tubular boilers, 45, 48. 

Shell of Dunning boiler, 28. 

Sizes of steam m.ains, 114. 

Special features of contracts, 328. 

Specific gravity of steam, 349. 

Specifications for hot-water heating, 
324, 328. 

Specifications for steam heating, 319, 
323. 

Stacks, capacity of, 363. 

Standard flanges, schedule of, 71. 

Standard type of tubular boilers, 27. 

Standard pipe, table of, 63, 361. 

Steam appliances, 262, 287. 

Steam for cooking and manufactur- 
ing, 198. 

Steam gauge, 50. 

Steam gauge, low-pressure, 51. 

Steam heating, advantages of, 114. 

Steam-heating apparatus, 103, 114. 

Steam heating, exhaust, 115, 119. 

Steam heating, methods of, 103, 104. 

Steam heating, specifications and bid, 
319, 323. 

Steam heating, the circuit system, 
104. 

Steam heating, the divided circuit 
system, 107, 109. 

Steam heating, the one-pipe system 
with dry returns, 108, 110. 

Steam heating, the overhead system, 
108, 111. 



INDEX 



399 



Steam heating, the two-pipe system, 

112, 113. 
Steami mains, sizes of, 114. 
Steam power, cost of coal, 362. 
Steam pumps, 276, 279. 
Steam-radiator connections, 199, 201. 
Steam regulator. Imperial Climax, 

300. 
Steam separators, 273, 275. 
Steam, specific gravity of, 349. 
Steam, table of temperatures, 359. 
Steam traps, 262, 266. 
Steam, value of exhaust, 115. 
Steel, to remove rust from, 352. 
Suggestions for saving labor, 334, 335. 
Summer care of heating apparatus, 

329, 330. 
Summer tests to determine efficiency, 

332, 333. 
Supporting indirect radiators, 95. 
Swimming pools, heating of, 189, 194. 

Table I. — Radiating power of bodies, 
20. 

Table II. — Measurements for setting 
tubular boilers with full fronts, 45. 

Table III. — Measurements for setting 
tubular boilers with half fronts, 47. 

Table IV. — Sizes of chimneys, 58. 

Table V. — Heights of chimneys, 61. 

Table VI. — Measurements of stand- 
ard and wrought-iron pipe, 63. 

Table VII. — Expansion of wrought- 
iron pipe, 65. 

Table VIII. — Length and size of 
wrought-iron nipples, 69. 

Table IX. — Schedule of standard 
flanges, 71. 

Table X. — Indirect work: sizes cold 
and hot air ducts, 94. 

Table XL — Sizes of steam mains, 114. 



Table XII. — Sizes of mains — two- 
pipe hot- water system, 124. 

Table XIII. — Expansion tank sizes, 
128. 

Table XIV.— Sizes of mains for one- 
pipe hot water, 139. 

Table XV. — Boiling temperatures of 
water at various pressures, 142. 

Table XVI. — Temperatures — green- 
house heating, 158. 

Table XVIL— Schedule of water 
temperatures — greenhouse heating, 
158. 

Table XVIIL— Capacities of hot- 
water heaters for swimming pools, 
192. 

Table XIX. — Sizes of tanks and 
heaters — domestic hot-water sup- 
ply, 197. 

Table XX. — Sizes of steam coils for 
storage tanks, 198. 

Table XXL— Measuring 45° and 
other angles, 210. 

Table XXII. — Consumption of air 
by various modes of artificial light- 
ing, 213. 

Table XXIII. — ^Air supply necessary 
for various buildings, 214. 

Table XXIV. — Cubic feet of air con- 
taining four parts of carbonic acid 
in ten thousand supplied per per- 
son, 218. 

Table XXV. — Temperature, weight, 
and humidity of air, 229. 

Table XXVI. — Temperature table, 
Schott's balanced column system, 
291. 

Table XXVIL— Tests of pipe cover- 
ing, 294. 

Table XXVIII .—Tests to determine 
eflSciency, 333. 



400 



INDEX 



Table XXIX. — Gauges and their 
equivalents, 351. 

Table XXX.— Melting points of met- 
als, 353. 

Table XXXI. — Boiling points of 
fluids, 353. 

Table XXXII.— Weights and meas- 
ures, 354. 

Table XXXIII.— Metric system of 
weights and measures, 355. 

Table XXXIV.— Minimum and 
mean temperatures of various 
cities, 356. 

Table XXXV. — Comparison of ther- 
mometric scales, 357. 

Table XXXVI. — Area of circles and 
sides of squares, 358. 

Table XXXVII.— Temperature of 
steam at various pressures, 359. 

Table XXXVIII.— Properties of sat- 
urated steam, 359. 

Table XXXIX.— Materials for brick- 
work of tubular boilers, 360. 

Table XL. — Standard pipe, 361. 

Table XLI. — Cost of coal for steam 
power, 362. 

Table XLII. — Capacities of stacks, 
363. 

Table XUII. — Relation between 
temperature of feed water and 
evaporative capacity of boiler, 364. 

Table XLIV. — Feed water required 
by boiler, 364. 

Table XI.V. — Vacuum, pressure and 
temperature, etc., 365. 

Table XLVI. — Pump diameters and 
capacities in gallons, 366. 

Table XL VII. — -Decimal equivalents 
of an inch, 367. 

Table XL VIII. — Horse power of a 
leather belt one inch wide, 368. 



Table XLIX. — Number of square 
inches of flue area required per 
1,000 cubic feet of contents for 
given velocity and air change, 373. 

Table L. — Flue area required for the 
passage of a given volume of air at 
a given velocity, 374. 

Table LI. — Flue area required for 
the passage of a given volume of 
air at a given velocity (continued), 
375. 

Table LII. — Flue area required for 
the passage of a given volume of 
air at a given velocity (continued), 
376. 

Table LIII. — Weight of round gal- 
vanized iron pipe and elbows, of 
the proper gauges for heating and 
ventilating systems, 377. 

Table LIV. — Equalizing the diam- 
eters of pipes, 378. 

Table LV. — Air: Loss of pressure in 
ounces per square inch for varying 
velocities and varying diameters of 
pipes, 379. 

Table LVI. — Number of cubic feet 
of dry air that may be heated 
through 1° (F.) by the condensation 
of one pound of steam, 380. 

Table LVIL— Number of thermal 
units contained in one pound of 
water, 381. 

Table LVIII. — Volume and density 
of air at various temperatures, 382. 

Table LIX. — Influence of the tem- 
perature of air upon the conditions 
of its movement, 383. 

Table LX. — Velocity created, volume 
discharged and horse power re- 
quired when air under a given 
pressure in ounces per square inch 



INDEX 



401 



is allowed to escape in the atmos- 
phere, 384. 

Table LXI. — Moisture absorbed by 
air, 385. 

Table LXII. — Moisture in the atmos- 
phere, 386. 

Table LXIII. — Volume of air neces- 
sary to maintain a standard of pur- 
ity, 387. 

Table LXIV. — Pressure in inches of 
water and corresponding pressure 
in ounces, with velocities of air 
due to pressures, 388. 

Table LXV.— Pressure in ounces per 
square inch with velocities of air 
due to pressures, 388. 

Table LXVL— Weights of galvan- 
ized iron pipe per lineal foot, 389. 

Table of weights and measures, 354. 

Tables, rules and other information, 
347, 389. 

Tank capacities, domestic water heat- 
ing, 197. 

Tees, improper use of, 203. 

Temperature of steam, table of, 359. 

Temperature regulation and heat 
control, 299, 315. 

Temperatures of various cities in the 
United States, 356. 

Thermal units in one pound of water, 
381. 

Thermometer, high temperature, 258. 

Thermometer, hot-water, 147, 148. 

Thermometric scales, comparison of, 
357. 

Thermostat, Howard, 308. 

Thermostat, Johnson, 312. 

Thermostat, Lawler, 311. 

Thermostat, Minneapolis, 310. 

Thermostat, National, 306. 

Thermostat. Powers, 301. 



To clean brass, 351. 

To harden cast iron, 352. 

To prevent machinery from rusting, 
352. 

To remove rust from steel, 352. 

To remove stains from marble, 352. 

Tools, care of, 333, 334. 

Trane mercury seal system, vacuum 
heating, 175, 178. 

Traps, bucket, 263, 264. 

Traps, expansion, 263. 

Traps, float, 264, 265. 

Traps, return, 266, 273. 

Tubular boilers, heating capacity of, 
349. 

Tubular boilers, materials for brick- 
ing, 360. 

Tubular boilers, measurements for 
setting, 45, 47. 

Tubular boilers, plan of brick setting, 
46, 48. 

Underground pipe, covering for, 296, 

297. 
Useful information, 3^7, 389. 
Utihzing waste heat, 342, 346. 

Vacuum exhaust systems, 165, 173. 
Vacuum heating, future of, 187, 188. 
Vacuum heating systems, 163, 188. 
Vacuum, pressure and temperature, 

table of, 365. 
Vacuum pumps, 279, 280. 
Vacuum, relief on expansion tank, 

143, 144. 
Vacuum Vapor Company's system, 

181. 
Vacuum- vapor heating system, 183. 
Valves, 73. 
Valves, angle, 74. 
Valves, back-pressure, 282. 



402 



INDEX 



Valve, check, 76. 

Valve, diaphragm radiator, 303, 313. 

Valves, gate, 74, 75, 76. 

Valves, radiator, 74. 

Valves, reducing pressure, 283. 

Valves, safety, 49. 

Valve, straightway hot-water, 131. 

Value of exhaust steam, 115. 

Van Auken system, vacuum heating, 

173. 
Vapor heating system, 178, 180. 
Velocity of air due to pressures, 

388. 
Ventilation, 211, 223. 
Ventilation, air necessary for, 213, 

218. 
Ventilation, early history of, 16. 
Ventilation, importance of, 211, 213. 
Ventilation, mechanical, 224, 261. 
Ventilation, methods of, 218, 223. 
Ventilation, required area of flues, 

373, 376. 
Volume of air at various tempera- 
■ tures, 382. 

Wall boxes for direct-indirect radia- 
tors, 95. 
Waste-heat utilizing, 342, 346. 
Water, boiling point of, 142, 347. 



Water column and gauge glass, 53, 
54. 

Water, expansion of, 347. 

Water feeders, automatic, 287. 

Water, gallons in cyhndrical tank, 
348, 351. 

W^ater-hne, artificial, 205, 206. 

Water, pressure of, 348. 

Water, pressure in inches, 388. 

Water, pressure in ounces, 388. 

Water required by conllensing en- 
gines, 349. 

Water required by tubular boilers, 
348. 

W^ater surface in boilers, 41. 

Water, thermal units in one pound, 
381. 

Water, weight of, 347. 

Weight of anthracite coal, 348. 

Weight of bituminous coal, 348. 

Weight of galvanized iron pipe, 377, 
389. 

Weight of water, 347. 

Weights and measures, table of, 354. 

W^eights and measures, the metric 
system, 355. 

Webster system, exhaust-steam heat- 
ing, 165, 168. 

Why hot water circulates, 139, 140. 



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JAMES H. BLESSING THOMAS F. RYAN 

PRESIDENT TREASURER 




STEAM, WATER AND AIR 

SPECIALTIES 
Up to Date and Guaranteed 

Reducing Valves for all purposes 

Back Pressure Valves for all purposes 

Atmospheric Relief Valves 

Steam Traps for all purposes 

Damper Regulators 

Hot Water Temperature Controllers 

Water Pressure Regulators 

Steam Separators 

Grease Extractors 

Pump Regulators 

Water Feeders 



Trap 




P»ii 



Purifiers and Feed W^ater Heaters 

Feed W^ater Regulators 

High Pressure Boiler Feeders 

W^ater Arches. Emergency Valves. 

High and Low W^ater Alarms 

Strainer Connections 

Drip Tank Controllers 

Float Valves 

Pump Governors and Receivers 

Combination Muffler and Grease Extractor Tanks, Receivers, 

Pump Governor, Pump and Feed W^ater Heater 
Grease Extractor and Purifier Feed Water Heaters 

W^aste Heat Utilizers, etc. 

MANUFACTURED BY 



Grease and Oil Trapt: 
Low W^ater Alarms 



Tank Pump Controllers 



Special 98 Valve 



KIELEY & MUELLER, 34 West I3th Street, New York City 



SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL BOOKS 



PUBLISHED BY 

The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

132 Nassau Street, New York, V. S. A. 

ill^°' Any of these books will be sent prepaid on receipt of price to any address in the 
world. 

(I^^'We will send FREE to any address in the world our complete Catalogue of Scientific 
and Practical Books. 

Appleton's Cyclopaedia of Applied Mechanics 

This is a dictionary of mechanical engineering and the mechanical arts, fully describ- 
ing and illustrating upwards of ten thousand subjects, including agricultural machinery, 
wood, metal, stone, and leather working ; mining, hydraulic, railway, marine, and military 
engineering; working in cotton, wool, and paper; steam, air, and gas engines, and other 
motors; lighting, heating, and ventilation; electrical, telegraphic, optical, horological, cal- 
culating, and other instruments; etc. 

A magnificent set in three volumes, handsomely bound in half morocco, each volume 
containing over 900 large octavo pages, with nearly 8,000 engravings, including diagram- 
matic and sectional drawings, with full explanatory details. Price $12.00. 

ASKINSON. Perfumes and Their Preparation. A Comprehensive 

Treatise on Perfumery 

Containing complete directions for raaking handkerchief perfumes, smelling salts, 
sachets, fumigating pastils; preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair; 
cosmetics, hair dyes, and other toilet articles. 300 pages. 32 illustrations. 8vo. Cloth, 
$3.00. 

BARR. Catechism on the Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of 

Smoke 

A practical treatise for all interested in fuel economy and the suppression of smoke 
from stationary steam-boiler furnaces and from locomotives, 85 illustrations. i2mo. 
349 pages. Cloth, $1.50. 

BARROWS. Practical Pattern Making 

This is the best treatise on pattern making that has appeared. There is a general 
introduction on pattern making as an art, followed by a section on material and tools, tak- 
ing up subjects like lumber, varnish, hand tools, band saws, circular saws, etc. Then 
follows a section devoted to examples of wood patterns of different types, and one upon 
metal patterns. There is then a section upon pattern-shop mathematics and one upon 
cost, care, and invention. It is indispensable to every patternmaker. Cloth, $2.00. 

BAUER. Marine Engines and Boilers : Their Design and Construction 

A large practical work of 722 pages, 550 illustrations, and 17 folding plates for the 
use of students, engineers, and naval constructors. 

Clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of 
its plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. The illustrations are care- 
ful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well-executed photographic 
views of completed engines and boilers. $9.00 net. 

BENJAMIN. Modern Mechanism 

A large octavo volume of 959 pages and containing over 1,000 illustrations dealing 
solely with the principal and most useful advances of the past few years. Issued under a 
title which exactly describes its contents — "Modern Mechanism." The most eminent 
experts have contributed to this volume, and the benefits to be derived from the result of 
their researches and scientific accomplishments are of incalculable value to the man seek- 
ing the highest and most advanced practice in Applied Mechanics. Bound m half moroc- 
co. $5.00. 

BLACKALL. Air-Brake Catechism 

This book is a complete study of the air-brake equipment, including the latest devices 
and inventions used. All parts of the air brake, their troubles and peculiarities, and a 
practical way to find and remedy them, are explained. This book contains over 1,500 
questions with their answers, and is completely illustrated by engravings and two large 
Westinghouse air-brake educational charts, printed in colors. 312 pages. Handsomely 
bound in cloth. 20th edition, revised and enlarged. $2.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

BLACKALL, New York Air-Brake Catechism 

This is a complete treatise on the New York Air-Brake and Air-Signalling Apparatus 
giving a detailed description of all the parts, their operation, troubles, and the methods of 
locating and remedying the same. It includes and fully describes and illustrates the plain 
triple valve, quick-action triple valve, duplex pumps, pump governor, brake valves, re- 
taining valves, freight equipment, signal valve, signal reducing valve, and car discharge 
valve. 20C pages, fully illustrated. $i.oo. 

BOOTH AND KERSHAW. Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy 

As the title indicates, this book of 197 pages and 75 illustrations deals with the problem 
of complete combustion, which it treats from the chemical and mechanical standpoints, 
besides pointing out the economical and humanitarian aspects of the question. $2.50. 

BOOTH. Steam Pipes: Their Design and Construction 

A treatise on the principles of steam conveyance and means and materials employed in 
practice, to secure economy, efficiency, and safety. A book of 187 pages which should be 
in the possession of every engineer and contractor. $2.00. 

BUCHETTI. Engine Tests and Boiler Efficiencies 

This work fully describes and illustrates the method of testing the power of steam 
engines, turbine and explosive motors. The properties of steam and the evaporative 
power of fuels. Combustion of fuel and chimney draft; with formulas explained or practi- 
cally computed. 255 pages; 179 illustrations. $3.00. 

BYRON. Physics and Chemistry of Mining 

For the use of all preparing for examinations in Mining or qualifying for Colliery 
Managers' Certificates. $2.00. 

COCKIN. Practical Coal Mining 

An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practi- 
cal details, which will intuitively impart to the reader, not only a general knowledge of 
the principles of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects, including 
chemistry, mechanics, steam and steam engines, and electricity. In elucidating the vari- 
ous divisions incorporated in this excellent work, the author has started at the task from 
the very inception, and has ignored all obsolete methods, excepting where they illustrate 
fixed principles or are in touch with the march of modern improvements. The treatise 
is positively up to date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery 
engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are inter- 
ested in or connected with the industry. $2.50. 

FOWLER. Locomotive Breakdowns and Their Remedies 

This work treats in full all kinds of accidents that are likely to happen to locomotive 
engines while on the road. The various parts of the locomotives are discussed, and every 
accident that can possibly happen, with the remedy to be applied, is given. The various 
types of compound locomotives are included, so that every engineer may post himself in 
regard to emergency work in connection with this class of engine. 

For the railroad man, who is anxious to know what to do and how to do it under all 
the various circumstances that may arise in the performance of his duties, this book will 
be an invaluable assistant and guide. 250 pages, fully illustrated. $1.50. 

FOW^LER. Boiler Room Chart 

An educational chart showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in 
a modern boiler-room. The equipment consists of water-tube boilers, ordinary grates 
and mechanical stokers, feed-water heaters and pumps. The various parts of the appli- 
ances are shovvn broken or removed, so that the internal construction is ixxWy illustrated. 
Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given 
in a glossary printed at the sides. The chart, therefore, serves as a dictionary of the boiler- 
room, the names of more than two hundred parts bemg given on the list. 25 cents. 

GRIMSHAW. Saw Filing and Management of Saws 

A practical handbook on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazmg of 
band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. 
Cloth, $1.00. 

GRIMSHAW. ««Shop Kinks" 

This book is entirely different from any other on machine-shop practice. It is not 
descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of doing work better, 
more cheaply, and more rapidly than usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops in Eu- 
rope and America. Some of its over 500 items and 222 illustrations are contributed di- 
rectly for its pages by eminent constructors; the rest has been gathered by the author m 
his thirty years' travel and experience. Fourth edition. Nearly 400 pages. Cloth, $2.50. 

GRIMSHAW. Engine Runner's Catechism 

Tells how to erect, adjust, and run the principal steam engines in the United States. 
Describes the principal features of various special and well-known makes of engines. Sixth 
edition. 336 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth, $2.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

GRIMSHAW. Steam Engine Catechism 

A series of direct practical answers to direct practical questions, mainly intended for 
young engineers and for examination questions. Nearly 1,000 questions with their an- 
swers. Fourteenth edition. 413 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth, $2.00. 

GRIMSHAW. Locomotive Catechism 

This is a veritable encyclopaedia of the locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, 
and thoroughly up to date. It contains 1,600 questions with their answers. Twenty- 
fourth edition, greatly enlarged. Nearly 450 pages, over 200 illustrations, and 12 large 
folding plates. Cloth, $2.00. 

HARRISON. Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards 

A thorough treatise covering the subject in all its branches. Practical every-day 
problems in wiring are presented and the method of obtaining intelligent results clearly 
shown. 270 pages, 105 illustrations. $1.50. 

Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Receipts, Formulas and Processes 

Edited by G. D. Hiscox. A complete work giving ten thousand formulas which will 
be of value to the housewife, the painter, the carpenter, the metal worker, the farmer, the 
soap and candle maker, the photographer, the jeweller, the watchmaker, the electroplater, 
the electrotyper, the tanner, the mechanic, the engineer, and the manufacturer. 900 
pages. $3.00. 

Henley's Encyclopedia of Practical Engineering and Allied Trades 

Edited by Joseph G. Horner. The scope of this work is indicated by its title, as 
being both practical and encyclopaedic in character. All the great sections of engineering 
practice and enterprise receive sound and concise treatment. 

Complete in five volumes. Each volume contains 500 pages and 500 illustrations. 
Bound in half morocco. Price, $6.00 per volume, or $25.00 for the complete set of five 
volumes. 

HISCOX. Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines 

Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive, and right up to date. 
The only complete work on this important subject. Tells all about the running and man- 
agement of gas engines. Full of general information about the new and popular motive 
power, its economy and ease of management. Also chapters on horseless vehicles, electric 
lighting, marine propulsion, etc. 450 pages Illustrated with 351 engravings. Fifteenth 
edition, revised, enlarged, and reset. $2.50 

HISCOX. Compressed Air in All Its Applications 

This is the most complete book on the subject of Air that has ever been issued, and its 
thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. Beginning 
with a history of the progress that has been made in this ne,it takes up the properties of 
air, gives tables of its volume and weight, both dry and saturated, as well as numerous 
other conditions. Step by step the reader finds how it is used, the various methods of 
compression and apparatus employed, its use in transmitting power, air motors and their 
efficiency, and a host of other information in this connection. Pneumatic tools and their 
uses receive ample attention, as do the sand-blast, pneumatic tube transmission, and other 
applications, such as raising water, ice machines and liquid air, while the air brake and air 
signal also come in for their share. Taken as a whole it may be called an encyclopaedia of 
compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 825 pages, has dealt with the sub- 
ject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. 545 illustrations, 820 
pages. Price, $5.00. 

HISCOX. Horseless Vehicles, Automobiles and Motor Cycles, Operated 
by Steam, Hydro-Carbon, Electric, and Pneumatic Motors 

A practical treatise of 459 pages and 316 illustrations for Automobilists, Manufacturers, 
Capitalists, Investors, Promoters, and every one interested in the development, c".re, and 
use of the Automobile. 

Nineteen chapters. Large 8vo. 316 illustrations. 460 pages. Cloth, $1.50. 

HISCOX. Mechanical Movements, Powers, and Devices 

This work of 400 pages contains 1,800 specially made illustrations with descriptive 
text. It is a Dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, 
embracing an illustrated description of the greatest variety of Mechanical Movements and 
Devices in any language. A new work on illustrated Mechanics, Mechanical Movements 
and Devices, covering nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field for the 
use of Machinists, Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, Draughtsmen. Students, and all others 
interested in any way in the devising and operation of mechanical works of any kind. $3.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

HISCOX. Mechanical Appliances, Mechanical Movements and Novelties 

of Construction 

The many editions through which the first volume of "Mechanical Movements" has 
passed are more than a sufficient encouragement to warrant the publication of a second 
volume of 400 pages, containing 1,000 larger and specially-made illustrations, which are 
more special in scope than those in the first volume, inasmuch as they deal with the pecul- 
iar requirements of the various arts and manufactures, and more detailed in their ex- 
planations, because of the greater complexity of the machinery illustrated and described. 
I3.00. 

HISCOX. Modern Steam Engineering in Theory and Practice 

This book has been specially prepared for the use of the modern steam engineer, the 
technical students, and all who desire the latest and most reliable information on steam 
and steam boilers, the machinery of power, the steam turbine, electric power and lighting 
plants, etc. 450 octavo pages, 400 detailed engravings. $3.00. 

k HORNER. Modern Milling Machines : Their Design, Construction and 

Operation 

This work of 304 pages is fully illustrated and describes and illustrates the Milling 
Machine from its early conception to the present time. $4.00. 

HORNER. Practical Metal Turning 

A work covering the modern practice of machining metal parts in the lathe. Fully 
illustrated. $3.50. 

HORNER. Tools for Machinists and Wood Workers, Including Instru- 
ments of Measurment 

A practical work of 340 pages fully illustrated, giving a general description and classi- 
fication of tools for machinists and woodworkers. $3.50. 

Inventor's Manual ; How to Make a Patent Pay 

This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking 
out their patents and disposing of them. 119 pages. Cloth, $1.00. 

KRAUSS. Linear Perspective Self-Taught 

The underlying principle by which objects may be correctly represented in perspec- 
tive is clearly set forth in this book ; everything relating to the subject is shown in suitable 
diagrams, accompanied by full explanations in the text. Price $2.50. 

LE VAN. Safety Valves; Their History, Invention, and Calculation 

Illustrated by 69 engravings. 151 pages. $1.50. 

LEWES AND BRAME. Laboratory Note Book 

A practical treatise prepared for the Chemical Student. 170 pages. Cloth, $1.00. 

MATHOT. Modern Gas Engines and Producer Gas Plants 

A practical treatise of 320 pages, fully illustrated by 175 detailed illustrations, setting 
forth the principles of gas engines and producer design, the selection and installation of 
an engine, conditions of perfect operation, producer-gas engines and their possibilities, 
the care of gas engines and producer-gas plants, with a chapter on volatile hydrocarbon 
and oil engines. $2.50. 

MEINHARDT. Practical Lettering and Spacing 

Shows a rapid and accurate method of becoming a good letterer with a little practice. 
Oblong. Paper cover. 60 cents. 

PARSELL & WEED. Gas Engine Construction 

A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of the action of gas engines 
of various types, and the design and construction of a half-horse-power gas engine, with 
illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with dimensioned working drawings 
giving clearly the sizes of the various details. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Twen- 
ty-five chapters. Large 8vo. Handsomely illustrated and bound. 300 pages. $2.50. 

PERRIGO. Modern Machine Shop Construction, Equipment and Man- 
agement 

The only work published that describes the Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing 
Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended lor it until the finished prod- 
uct is shipped. By a careful study of its chapters the practical man may economically 
build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine shop or manufact- 
uring establishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of 
modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction 
of Modern Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a book written and illustrated 
by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want 
facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 400 large 
qiiarto pages, 225 original and specially-made illustrations. $5.00. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

PERRIGO. Modern American Lathe Practice 

A new book describing and illustrating the very latest practice in lathe and boring 
mill operations, as well as the construction of and latest developments in the manufact- 
ure of these important classes of machine tools. 300 pages, fully ilkistrated. $2.50. 

REAGAN, JR. Electrical Engineers' and Students' Chart and Hand- 
Book of the Brush Arc Light System 

Illustrated. Bound in cloth, with celluloid chart in pocket. 50 cents. 

SAUNIER. Watchmaker's Hand-Book 

Just issued, 7th edition. Contains 498 pages and is a workshop companion for those 
engaged in watchmaking and allied mechanical arts. 250 engravings and 14 plates. $3.00. 

SLOANE. Electricity Simplified 

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and 
to show what the modern conception of electricity is. 158 pages. Illustrated. Twelfth 
edition. $1.00. 

SLOANE. How to Become a Successful Electrician 

It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical engineers. Not 
every one is prepared to spend several thousand dollars upon a college course, even if the 
three of four years requisite are at their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical 
engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell "How to Become a Suc- 
cessful Electrician" without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the profession. Twelfth 
edition. 189 pages. Illustrated. Cloth, $1.00. 

SLOANE. Arithmetic of Electricity 

A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, 
all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated by 
one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. Nineteenth edition. 
Illustrated. 138 pages. Cloth, $1.00. 

SLOANE. Electrician's Handy Book 

An up-to-date work covering the subject of practical electricity in all its branches, 
being intended for the every-day working electrician. The latest and best authority on 
all branches of applied electricity. Pocketbook size. Handsomely bound in leather, 
with title and edges in gold. 800 pages. 500 illustrations. Price, $3.50. 

SLOANE. Electric Toy Making, Dynamo Building, and Electric Motor 

Construction 

This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, 
dynamos, and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young 
and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. Eighteenth edition. 
Fully illustrated. 140 pages. Cloth, $1.00 

SLOANE. Rubber Hand Stamps and the Manipulation of India Rubber 

A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of rubber articles. 146 pages. 
Second edition. Cloth. $1.00. 

SLOANE. Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases 

Containing the full theory of the subject and giving the entire history of liquefaction 
of gases from the earliest times to the present. It shows how liquid air, like water, is 
carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected 
from it in the near future. 365 pages, with many illustrations. Handsomely bound in 
buckram. Second edition. $2.00. 

SLOANE. Standard Electrical Dictionary 

A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, 
terms, and phrases. An entirely new edition, brought up to date and greatly enlarged. 
Complete, concise, convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. Handsomely bound in 
cloth. 8vo. $3.00. 

STARBUCK. Modern Plumbing Illustrated 

A comprehensive and up-to-date work illustrating and describing the Drainage and 
Ventilation of dwellings, apartments, and public buildings, etc. The very latest and most 
approved methods in all branches of sanitary installation are given. Adopted tjy the 
United States Government in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, 
and by the principal boards of health of the United States and Canada. The standard 
book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, 
boards of plumbing examiners, and for the property owner, as well as for the workman 
and his apprentice. 300 pages. 50 full-page illustrations. $4.00. 

USHER. The Modern Machinist 

A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern machine-shop 
practice, and the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and devices for facili- 
tating, duplicating, and expediting the construction of machines and their parts. A new 
book from cover to cover. Fifth edition. 257 engravings. 322 pages. ' Cloth, $2.50. 



Publications of The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co. 

VAN DERVOORT. Modern Machine Shop Tools ; Their Construction, 

Operation, and Manipulation, Including Both Hand and Machine Tools 

An entirely new and fully illustrated work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describ- 
ing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of t)oth Hand and Machine 
Tools; being a work of practical instruction in all classes of machine-shop practice. In- 
cluding chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; 
the lathe and its tools: planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; 
gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and 
their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful 
data and tables. Fourth edition. $4.00. 

WALLIS- TAYLOR. Pocket Book of Refrigeration and Ice Making 

This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the sub- 
ject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect 
of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construc- 
tion and insulation of cold rooms, with their required pipe surface for different degrees of 
cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds 
of provisions; cold-storage charges for all classes of goods, ice-making and storage of ice, 
data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one 
hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the 
instalment and operation of a refrigerating plant. $1.50. 

WOOD. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear 

The only work issued treating of this subject of valve motion. 150 pages, illustrated. 
•Cloth $1.50. 

WOODWORTH. American Tool Making and Interchangeable Manu- 
facturing 

A practical treatise of 560 pages, containing 600 illustrations on the designing, con- 
structing, use, and installation of tools, jigs, fixtures, devices, special appliances, sheet-metal 
working processes, automatic mechanisms, and labor-saving contrivances; together with 
their use in the lathe, milling machine, turret lathe, screw machine, boring mill, power 
press, drill, subpress, drop hammer, etc., for the working of metals, the production of in- 
terchangeable machine parts, and the manufacture of repetition articles of metal. $4.00 

WOODWORTH. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modern 

Working of Sheet Metals 

A complete treatise of 384 pages and 505 illustrations upon the designing, constructing, 
and use of tools, fixtures, and devices, together with the manner in which they should be 
used in the power press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet- 
metal articles now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet-metal parts 
at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of 
Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the 
use of dies in the Power press are fully treated. 

The engravings show dies, press fixtures, and sheet-metal working devices, from the 
simplest to the most intricate, and the descriptions are so clear and practical that all metal- 
working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use them. $3.00. 

WOODWORTH. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, and Forging of 

Steel 

A new book containing special directions for the successful hardening and tempering 
of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow 
mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, 
fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, 
both large and small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes 
are presented. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are con- 
cisely presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, 
as are also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. 320 
pages. 250 illustrations. $2.50. 

WOODWORTH. Punches, Dies and Tools for Manufacturing in Presses 

A work of 500 pages, and illustrated by nearly 700 engravings, being an encyclopaedia 
of die-making, punch-making, die-sinking, sheet-metal working, and making of special tools, 
subpresses, devices and mechanical combinations for punching, cutting, bending, forming, 
piercing, drawing, compressing, and assembling sheet-metal parts and also articles of other 
materials in machine tools. $4.00. 

WRIGHT. Electric Furnaces and Their Industrial Application 

This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people ; the manufacturer 
who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfully in the electric furnace, 
the chemist who wishes to post himself on electro-chemistry, and the student of science 
who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. The book is not so scientific as to be of 
use only to the technologist, nor so unscientific as to suit only the tyro in electro-chemistry; 
it is a practical treatise of what has been done, and of what is being done, both experi- 
-mentally and commercially, with the electric furnace. 288 pages. $3.00. , 



FEB 27 1908 



